Polymersomes: A Synthetic Biological Approach to Encapsulation and Delivery

Zwitterionic Dendrimersomes: A Closer Xenobiotic Mimic of Cell Membranes

Building functional mimics of cell membranes is an important task toward the development of synthetic cells. So far, lipid and amphiphilic block copolymers are the most widely used amphiphiles with the bilayers by the former lacking stability while membranes by the latter are typically characterized by very slow dynamics. Herein, a new type of Janus dendrimer containing a zwitterionic phosphocholine hydrophilic headgroup (JD^PC ) and a 3,5-substituted dihydrobenzoate-based hydrophobic dendron is introduced. JD^PC self-assembles in water into zwitterionic dendrimersomes (z-DSs) that faithfully recapitulate the cell membrane in thickness, flexibility, and fluidity, while being resilient to harsh conditions and displaying faster pore closing dynamics in the event of membrane rupture. This enables the fabrication of hybrid DSs with components of natural membranes, including pore-forming peptides, structure-directing lipids, and glycans to create raft-like domains or onion vesicles. Moreover, z-DSs can be used to create active synthetic cells with life-like features that mimic vesicle fusion and motility as well as environmental sensing. Despite their fully synthetic nature, z-DSs are minimal cell mimics that can integrate and interact with living matter with the programmability to imitate life-like features and beyond.

Supramolecular Compartmentalized Hydrogels via Polydopamine Particle-Stabilized Water-in-Water Emulsions

Compartmentalized hydrogels constitute a significant research area, for example, for catalytic and biomedical applications. As presented here, a generic method is used for compartmentalization of supramolecular hydrogels by using water-in-water emulsions based on aqueous two-phase systems. By forming the supramolecular hydrogel throughout the continuous phase of all-aqueous emulsions, distinct, microcompartmentalized materials were created. The basis for the presented compartmentalized water-in-water hydrogels is polydopamine particle-stabilized water-in-water emulsions from dextran and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). Addition of α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) led to supramolecular complexation with PEG and subsequent hydrogel formation showing no signs of creaming. Due to the supramolecular nature of the compartmentalized hydrogels, selective network cleavage could be induced via competing guest addition, while keeping the emulsion substructure intact.

Separating Extreme pH Gradients Using Amphiphilic Copolymer Membranes

Polymeric vesicles, also called polymersomes, are highly efficient biomimetic systems. They can generate compartmentalized volumes at the nanoscale supported by synthetic amphiphilic membranes that closely mimic their biological counterparts. Membrane permeability and the ability to separate extreme pH gradients is a crucial condition a successful biomimetic system must meet. We show that polymersomes formed by non-ionic polybutadiene-b-polyethylene oxide (PBd-b-PEO) amphiphilic block copolymers engineer robust and stable membranes that are able to sustain pH gradients of 10 for a minimum of eight days. The cells' endo-lysomal compartments separate gradients between three and one, while we generated a pH gradient of threefold as great. This feature clearly is of great importance for applications as nanoreactors and drug-delivery systems where separating different aqueous volumes at the nanoscale level is an essential requirement.

Constructing Asymmetric Polyion Complex Vesicles via Template Assembling Strategy: Formulation Control and Tunable Permeability

A strategy for constructing polyion complex vesicles (PICsomes) with asymmetric structure is described. Poly(methylacrylic acid)-block-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) modified gold nanoparticles (PMAA-b-PNIPAm-@-Au NPs) were prepared and then assembled with poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly[1-methyl-3-(2-methacryloyloxy propylimidazolium bromine)] (PEG-b-PMMPImB) via polyion complex of PMMA and PMMPImB. After removing the Au NPs template, asymmetric PICsomes composed of a PNIPAm inner-shell, PIC wall, and PEG outer-corona were obtained. These PICsomes have low protein absorption and thermally tunable permeability, provided by the PEG outer-corona and the PNIPAm inner-shell, respectively. Moreover, PICsome size can be tailored by using templates of predetermined sizes. This novel strategy for constructing asymmetric PICsomes with well-defined properties and controllable size is valuable for applications such as drug delivery, catalysis and monitoring of chemical reactions, and biomimetics.

Compartmentalizing Supramolecular Hydrogels Using Aqueous Multi-phase Systems

A generic method is used for compartmentalization of supramolecular hydrogels by using water-in-water emulsions based on aqueous multi-phase systems (AMPS). By forming the low-molecular-weight hydrogel throughout all phases of all-aqueous emulsions, distinct, micro-compartmentalized materials were created. This structuring approach offers control over the composition of each type of the compartments by directing the partitioning of objects to be encapsulated. Moreover, this method allows for barrier-less, dynamic exchange of even large hydrophilic solutes (MW≈60 kDa) between separate aqueous compartments. These features are expected to find use in the fields of, for instance, micro-structured catalysts, templating, and tissue engineering.

Targeting Neutrophilic Inflammation Using Polymersome-Mediated Cellular Delivery

Neutrophils are key effector cells in inflammation and play an important role in neutralizing invading pathogens. During inflammation resolution, neutrophils undergo apoptosis before they are removed by macrophages, but if apoptosis is delayed, neutrophils can cause extensive tissue damage and chronic disease. Promotion of neutrophil apoptosis is a potential therapeutic approach for treating persistent inflammation, yet neutrophils have proven difficult cells to manipulate experimentally. In this study, we deliver therapeutic compounds to neutrophils using biocompatible, nanometer-sized synthetic vesicles, or polymersomes, which are internalized by binding to scavenger receptors and subsequently escape the early endosome through a pH-triggered disassembly mechanism. This allows polymersomes to deliver molecules into the cell cytosol of neutrophils without causing cellular activation. After optimizing polymersome size, we show that polymersomes can deliver the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor (R)-roscovitine into human neutrophils to promote apoptosis in vitro. Finally, using a transgenic zebrafish model, we show that encapsulated (R)-roscovitine can speed up inflammation resolution in vivo more efficiently than the free drug. These results show that polymersomes are effective intracellular carriers for drug delivery into neutrophils. This has important consequences for the study of neutrophil biology and the development of neutrophil-targeted therapeutics.

Rescue of mitochondrial function in parkin-mutant fibroblasts using drug loaded PMPC-PDPA polymersomes and tubular polymersomes

Mutations in parkin cause autosomal recessive Parkinsonism and mitochondrial defects. A recent drug screen identified a class of steroid-like hydrophobic compounds able to rescue mitochondrial function in parkin-mutant fibroblasts. Whilst these possess therapeutic potential, the size and high hydrophobicity of some may limit their ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier from systemic circulation, something that could be improved by novel drug formulations. In the present study, the steroid-like compounds Ursolic Acid (UA) and Ursocholanic Acid (UCA) were successfully encapsulated within nanoscopic polymersomes formed by poly(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl phosphorylcholine)-poly(2-di-isopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PMPC-PDPA) and separated into spherical and tubular morphologies to assess the effects of nanoparticle mediated delivery on drug efficacy. Following incubation with either morphology, parkin-mutant fibroblasts demonstrated time and concentration dependent increases in intracellular ATP levels, resembling those resulting from treatment with nascent UA and UCA formulated in 0.1% DMSO, as used in the original drug screen. Empty PMPC-PDPA polymersomes did not alter physiological measures related to mitochondrial function or induce cytotoxicity. In combination with other techniques such as ligand functionalisation, PMPC-PDPA nanoparticles of well-defined morphology may prove a promising platform for tailoring the pharmacokinetic profile and organ specific bio-distribution of highly hydrophobic compounds.

Molecular engineering of polymersome surface topology

Biological systems exploit self-assembly to create complex structures whose arrangements are finely controlled from the molecular to mesoscopic level. We report an example of using fully synthetic systems that mimic two levels of self-assembly. We show the formation of vesicles using amphiphilic copolymers whose chemical nature is chosen to control both membrane formation and membrane-confined interactions. We report polymersomes with patterns that emerge by engineering interfacial tension within the polymersome surface. This allows the formation of domains whose topology is tailored by chemical synthesis, paving the avenue to complex supramolecular designs functionally similar to those found in viruses and trafficking vesicles.

Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery and Targeting

Lipidic nanoparticulate self-assembled structures are effective carriers for drug delivery. This chapter describes the most famous nanotechnological drug delivery systems that are already used in clinical practice and clinical evaluation or in academic research. Liposomes are nanocolloidal lyotropic liquid crystals that are able to deliver bioactive molecules. Their membrane biophysics and thermodynamic properties reflect to the creation of metastable phases that affect their functionality and physicochemical behavior. Thermo- and pH-responsive liposomes are innovative nanotechnological platforms for drug delivery and targeting. Polymeric micelles and polymersomes are nanostructures that are promising drug carriers, while dendrimeric structures are considered as real nanoparticulate systems that are used in drug delivery and as nonviral vectors as well as in prevention of serious infections leading to diseases. Vaccines based on nanoparticles such as liposomes are an emerging technology and liposomes seem to meet the requirement criteria of adjuvanicity.

Nanopolymersomes as potential carriers for rifampicin pulmonary delivery

Tuberculosis (TB) has been stated as "the greatest killer worldwide due to a single infectious agent" behind the human immunodeficiency virus. Standard short-term treatment includes the oral administration of a combination of "first-line" drugs. However, poor-patient compliance and adherence to the long-term treatments represent one of the mayor drawbacks of the TB therapy. An alternative to the oral route is the pulmonary delivery of anti-TB drugs for local or systemic administration. Nanotechnology offers an attractive platform to develop novel inhalable/respirable nanocarriers. The present investigation was focused on the encapsulation of rifampicin (RIF) (a "first-line" anti-TB drug) within nanopolymersomes (nanoPS) employing di- and tri-block poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) based copolymers as biomaterials. The derivatives presented a number-average molecular weight between 12.2 KDa and 30.1 KDa and a hydrophobic/hydrophilic balance between 0.56 and 0.99. The nanoPS were able to enhance the apparent RIF aqueous solubility (up to 4.62 mg/mL) where the hydrodynamic diameters of the drug-loaded systems (1% w/v) were ranged between 65.8 nm and 94 nm at day 0 as determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS). Then, RIF-loaded systems demonstrated as excellent colloidal stability in aqueous media over 14 days with a spherical morphology as determined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Furthermore, RIF-loaded nano-sized PS promoted drug accumulation in macrophages (RAW 264.7) versus a drug solution representing promising results for a potential TB inhaled therapy.

The influence of polymer architecture on in vitro pDNA transfection

In the field of polymer-based gene delivery, the tuning potential of polymers by using different architectures like graft- and star-shaped polymers as well as self-assembled block copolymers is immense. In the last years numerous new polymer designs showed enhanced transfections properties in combination with a good biocompatibility.

Selective ion-permeable membranes by insertion of biopores into polymersomes

Biomimetic polymersomes with an ion-selective membrane were successfully engineered by insertion of ionomycin, without affecting their final architecture.

Polymersomes as an effective drug delivery system for glioma--a review

Glioma is one of the most commonly occurring malignant brain tumours which need proper treatment strategy. The current therapies for treating glioma like surgical resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy have failed in achieving satisfactory results and this forms a rationale for the development of novel drug delivery systems. Among them, polymersomes are superior novel carriers with diverse functions like enhanced stability, low permeability, tunable membrane properties, surface functionality, and long blood circulation time which make them suitable for cancer therapy. These are bilayered vesicles capable of encapsulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs used to target glioma effectively. In this review, we have discussed on general preparation, characterization, and targeting aspects of surface modified polymersomes for effective delivery of therapeutic agents to glioma.

Efficient cytosolic delivery mediated by polymersomes facilely prepared from a degradable, amphiphilic, and amphoteric copolymer

To solve problems in polymersome preparation caused by liposolubility of copolymers and to improve the cytosolic delivery efficiency of polymersomes to drugs, a lipopolysaccharide-amine (LPSA) copolymer with amphotericity and amphiphilicity is developed. LPSA contains two hydrophilic oppositely charged blocks (anionic oxidized alginate (OA), cationic polyethyleneimine (PEI 1.8 k)) and one hydrophobic block (cholesteryl), where OA is the backbone and cholesteryl-grafted PEI is the side chain. The two hydrophilic blocks first guarantee that LPSA will dissolve in water, and then help polymersome formation via electrostatic interactions to generate water insoluble interpolyelectrolyte complexes, which supplement the hydrophobic part to reach the right hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity ratio, and thus realize a one-step self-assembly of polymersomes in water. Our results show LPSA nanopolymersomes (LNPs) have low cytotoxicity and degradability, and an excellent ability to enter cells. TEM observation demonstrates that LNPs are entrapped in endosomes after endocytosis, and are then released to cytosols because of their strong endosomal escape capacity. As an example of cytosolic delivery to bioactive molecules, pDNA is delivered in mesenchymal stem cells, and more than 95% of cells express a large target protein, indicating that LNPs have high cytosolic delivery efficiency. Our study provides a novel, easy, and universal method to design copolymers for the preparation of polymersomes as efficient cytosolic delivery nanocarriers.

Controlled Delivery of Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles by pH-Sensitive Polymersomes

The present study reports on the development of composite gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)/polymersome formulations, based on pH-responsive biocompatible polymer vesicles integrating prefunctionalized AuNPs, doped with a hydrophobic model probe for improved multimodal drug delivery. The polymer vesicles were prepared from an amphiphilic pentablock terpolymer poly(ε-caprolactone)-b-poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(2-vinylpyridine)-b-poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL-PEO-P2VP-PEO-PCL), consisting of a pH-sensitive and biodegradable P2VP/PCL membrane, surrounded by neutral hydrophilic PEO looping chains. Additionally, partial quaternization of the P2VP block has been performed to introduce cationic moieties. Water-dispersible AuNPs carrying a hydrophobic molecule were encapsulated in the hydrophilic aqueous lumen of the vesicles, and the release was monitored at pH conditions simulating physiological and tumor environments. The complex delivery of the cargos from these vesicles showed improved and controlled kinetics relative to the individual nanocarriers, which could be further tuned by pH and chemical modification of the membrane forming block.

Tunable T cell immunity towards a protein antigen using polymersomes vs. solid-core nanoparticles

Using poly(propylene sulfide) (PPS) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as components of a nanocarrier platform, we sought to compare immune responses induced by PPS-bl-PEG polymersomes (PSs; watery-core structures, with antigen incorporated within the PSs) and PEG-stabilized PPS nanoparticles (NPs; solid-core structures, with antigen conjugated upon the NP surface). We have previously shown strong CD8(+) T cell responses to antigen conjugated to NPs via a disulfide link, and here we investigated the extent to which antigen incorporated within oxidatively-sensitive PSs could induce CD4(+) or CD8(+) T cell responses. C57BL/6 mice were subcutaneously immunized with free ovalbumin (OVA) as a model antigen, or equivalent doses of OVA-loaded into PSs, conjugated onto NPs, or given as a mixture of the two. Free CpG was used as an adjuvant. Antigen-loaded PSs induced enhanced frequencies of antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells in the spleen, lymph nodes and lungs as compared to the NP formulation, whereas antigen-conjugated NPs induced stronger CD8(+) T cell responses. Co-administration of both PSs and NPs elicited T cell immunity characteristic of the two nanocarriers at the same time, i.e. both strong CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell responses. These results have important implications for particulate-based vaccine design and highlight the potential of using different antigen-delivery systems for the induction of both T helper and cytotoxic T lymphocyte immune responses.

pH-sensitive vesicles, polymeric micelles, and nanospheres prepared with polycarboxylates

Titratable polyanions, and more particularly polymers bearing carboxylate groups, have been used in recent years to produce a variety of pH-sensitive colloids. These polymers undergo a coil-to-globule conformational change upon a variation in pH of the surrounding environment. This conformational change can be exploited to trigger the release of a drug from a drug delivery system in a pH-dependent fashion. This review describes the current status of pH-sensitive vesicles, polymeric micelles, and nanospheres prepared with polycarboxylates and their performance as nano-scale drug delivery systems, with emphasis on our recent contribution to this field.

Transdermal drug delivery: from micro to nano

Delivery across skin offers many advantages compared to oral or intravenous routes of drug administration. Skin however is highly impermeable to most molecules on the basis of size, hydrophilicity, lipophilicity and charge. For this reason it is often necessary to temporarily alter the barrier properties of skin for effective administration. This can be done by applying chemical enhancers, which alter the lipid structure of the top layer of skin (the stratum corneum, SC), by applying external forces such as electric currents and ultrasounds, by bypassing the stratum corneum via minimally invasive microneedles or by using nano-delivery vehicles that can cross and deliver their payload to the deeper layers of skin. Here we present a critical summary of the latest technologies used to increase transdermal delivery.