1
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Schmidt M, Karg M, Thelakkat M, Brendel JC. Correlating Molar Mass, π-Conjugation, and Optical Properties of Narrowly Distributed Anionic Polythiophenes in Aqueous Solutions. Macromol Rapid Commun 2024; 45:e2300396. [PMID: 37533353 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202300396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Polythiophene-based conjugated polyelectrolytes (CPE) are attracting increasing attention as sensor or interface materials in chemistry and biology. While cationic polythiophenes are better understood, limited structural information is available on their anionic counterparts. Limited access to well-defined polymers has made the study of structure-property relationships difficult and clear correlations have remained elusive. By combining controlled Kumada catalyst transfer polymerization with a polymer-analog substitution, regioregular and narrowly distributed poly(6-(thiophen-3-yl)hexane-1-sulfonate)s (PTHS) with tailored chain length are prepared. Analysis of their aqueous solution structures by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) revealed a cylindrical conformation for all polymers tested, with a length close to the contour length of the polymer chains, while the estimated radii remain too small (<1.5 nm) for extensive π-stacking of the chains. The latter is particularly interesting as the longest polymer exhibits a concentration-independent structured absorption typical of crystalline polythiophenes. Increasing the ionic strength of the solution diminishes these features as the Coulomb repulsion between the charged repeat units is shielded, allowing the polymer to adopt a more coiled conformation. The extended π-conjugation, therefore, appears to be a key parameter for these unique optical features, which are not present in the corresponding cationic polythiophenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Schmidt
- Applied Functional Polymers (AFUPO), University of Bayreuth, 95440, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Matthias Karg
- Physical Chemistry I, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Mukundan Thelakkat
- Applied Functional Polymers (AFUPO), University of Bayreuth, 95440, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Johannes C Brendel
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstraße 10, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743, Jena, Germany
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2
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Buvalaia E, Kruteva M, Hoffmann I, Radulescu A, Förster S, Biehl R. Interchain Hydrodynamic Interaction and Internal Friction of Polyelectrolytes. ACS Macro Lett 2023; 12:1218-1223. [PMID: 37624592 PMCID: PMC10515639 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.3c00409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Polyelectrolytes (PE) are polymeric macromolecules in aqueous solutions characterized by their chain topology and intrinsic charge in a neutralizing fluid. Structure and dynamics are related to several characteristic screening length scales determined by electrostatic, excluded volume, and hydrodynamic interactions. We examine PE dynamics in dilute to semidilute conditions using dynamic light scattering, neutron spinecho spectroscopy, and pulse field gradient NMR spectroscopy. We connect macroscopic diffusion to segmental chain dynamics, revealing a decoupling of local chain dynamics from interchain interactions. Collective diffusion is described within a colloidal picture, including electrostatic and hydrodynamic interactions. Chain dynamics is characterized by the classical Zimm model of a neutral chain retarded by internal friction. We observe that hydrodynamic interactions are not fully screened between chains and that the internal friction within the chain increases with an increase in ion condensation on the chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Buvalaia
- Jülich
Centre for Neutron Science JCNS and Institute of Biological Information
Processing IBI, Forschungszentrum Jülich
GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Margarita Kruteva
- Jülich
Centre for Neutron Science JCNS and Institute of Biological Information
Processing IBI, Forschungszentrum Jülich
GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Ingo Hoffmann
- Institut
Max von Laue-Paul Langevin (ILL), 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 20156, F-38042
CEDEX 9 Grenoble, France
| | - Aurel Radulescu
- Jülich
Centre for Neutron Science JCNS at Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Zentrum (MLZ), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Stephan Förster
- Jülich
Centre for Neutron Science JCNS and Institute of Biological Information
Processing IBI, Forschungszentrum Jülich
GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Ralf Biehl
- Jülich
Centre for Neutron Science JCNS and Institute of Biological Information
Processing IBI, Forschungszentrum Jülich
GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
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3
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Muthukumar M. Fluctuations, structure, and size inside coacervates. THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL. E, SOFT MATTER 2023; 46:79. [PMID: 37682368 DOI: 10.1140/epje/s10189-023-00335-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Aqueous solutions of oppositely charged macromolecules exhibit the ubiquitous phenomenon of coacervation. This subject is of considerable current interest due to numerous biotechnological applications of coacervates and the general premise of biomolecular condensates. Towards a theoretical foundation of structural features of coacervates, we present a field-theoretic treatment of coacervates formed by uniformly charged flexible polycations and polyanions in an electrolyte solution. We delineate different regimes of polymer concentration fluctuations and structural features of coacervates based on the concentrations of polycation and polyanion, salt concentration, and experimentally observable length scales. We present closed-form formulas for correlation length of polymer concentration fluctuations, scattering structure factor, and radius of gyration of a labelled polyelectrolyte chain inside a concentrated coacervate. Using random phase approximation suitable for concentrated polymer systems, we show that the inter-monomer electrostatic interaction is screened by interpenetration of all charged polymer chains and that the screening length depends on the individual concentrations of the polycation and the polyanion, as well as the salt concentration. Our calculations show that the scattering intensity decreases monotonically with scattering wave vector at higher salt concentrations, while it exhibits a peak at intermediate scattering wave vector at lower salt concentrations. Furthermore, we predict that the dependence of the radius of gyration of a labelled chain on its degree of polymerization generally obeys the Gaussian chain statistics. However, the chain is modestly swollen, the extent of which depending on polyelectrolyte composition, salt concentration, and the electrostatic features of the polycation and polyanion such as the degree of ionization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murugappan Muthukumar
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA.
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4
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Horkay F, Basser PJ, Geissler E. Ion-induced changes in DNA gels. SOFT MATTER 2023; 19:5405-5415. [PMID: 37427607 PMCID: PMC10510426 DOI: 10.1039/d3sm00666b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) measurements are reported for DNA gels under near physiological conditions in which the concentration of monovalent and divalent counter-ions and the pH are varied. The scattering intensity I(q) is described by a two-term equation, one due to osmotic concentration fluctuations and the other coming from static inhomogeneities frozen in by the cross-links. SANS in the low q range indicates the presence of large clusters and the size of which exceeds the resolution of the experiment. In the intermediate q-range, the intensity increases with the CaCl2 concentration and the slope approaches -1, corresponding to linear (rod-like) scatterers. In the highest q region, the scattering response is governed by the local chain geometry. Screening of electrostatic interactions by sodium chloride causes a moderate increase in the SANS intensity that is accompanied by an increase in the mesh size L of the network. Addition of calcium chloride, or a decrease in pH, produces similar trends, and ultimately leads to phase separation. The scattering intensity at q = 0, estimated from independent measurements of the osmotic pressure Π, is in excellent agreement with I(0) from the SANS measurements. Anomalous small angle X-ray scattering (ASAXS) measurements on the uncross-linked DNA show that the monovalent ion cloud is only weakly influenced by the addition of divalent ions. Conversely, the divalent counter-ion cloud tightly follows the contour of polymer chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Horkay
- Section on Quantitative Imaging and Tissue Sciences, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, 13 South Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | - Peter J Basser
- Section on Quantitative Imaging and Tissue Sciences, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, 13 South Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | - Erik Geissler
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire de Physique, Université Grenoble Alpes and CNRS, F-38000 Grenoble, France
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5
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Conformational Behavior of Single Circular Semiflexible Polyelectrolyte in Presence of Multivalent Counterions. CHINESE JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10118-022-2842-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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6
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Liu L, Duan C, Wang R. Theory of polymers in poor solvents: Inter-chain interaction, second virial coefficient, and Θ point. POLYMER 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2022.125312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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7
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Abstract
The association of polyelectrolytes (PEs) in solution affects a wealth of structural and dynamic behaviors, and is also fundamentally important for an understanding of protein association and aggregation. Here, we theoretically study the association of two PE chains by addressing the stability and morphology of the non-spherical associates. Our theory predicts that an elongated pearl-necklace (PN) associate can be stable at high salt concentrations due to the screened electrostatic repulsion. This contradicts the implication of scaling theory. In addition, there is no one-to-one correspondence between the morphology of the associate and its constituting unimers, which is demonstrated by the existence of different association modes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Duan
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, Berkeley, California 94720, USA.
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8
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Han A, Uppala VVS, Parisi D, George C, Dixon BJ, Ayala CD, Li X, Madsen LA, Colby RH. Determining the Molecular Weight of Polyelectrolytes Using the Rouse Scaling Theory for Salt-Free Semidilute Unentangled Solutions. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aijie Han
- Materials Science and Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Veera Venkata Shravan Uppala
- Department of Chemistry and Macromolecules Innovation Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Daniele Parisi
- Materials Science and Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Christy George
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Benjamin J. Dixon
- Materials Science and Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Camila Denise Ayala
- Materials Science and Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Xiuli Li
- Department of Chemistry and Macromolecules Innovation Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Louis A. Madsen
- Department of Chemistry and Macromolecules Innovation Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Ralph H. Colby
- Materials Science and Engineering and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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9
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Hofman AH, Pedone M, Kamperman M. Protected Poly(3-sulfopropyl methacrylate) Copolymers: Synthesis, Stability, and Orthogonal Deprotection. ACS POLYMERS AU 2022; 2:169-180. [PMID: 35698473 PMCID: PMC9185742 DOI: 10.1021/acspolymersau.1c00044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Because of their
permanent charge, strong polyelectrolytes remain
challenging to characterize, in particular, when they are combined
with hydrophobic features. For this reason, they are typically prepared
through a postmodification of a fully hydrophobic precursor. Unfortunately,
these routes often result in an incomplete functionalization or otherwise
require harsh reaction conditions, thus limiting their applicability.
To overcome these problems, in this work a strategy is presented that
facilitates the preparation of well-defined strong polyanions by starting
from protected 3-sulfopropyl methacrylate monomers. Depending on the
chemistry of the protecting group, the hydrophobic precursor could
be quantitatively converted into a strong polyanion under nucleophilic,
acidic, or basic conditions. As a proof of concept, orthogonally protected
diblock copolymers were synthesized, selectively deprotected, and
allowed to self-assemble in aqueous solution. Further conversion
into a fully water-soluble polyanion was achieved by deprotecting
the second block as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton H Hofman
- Polymer Science, Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Matteo Pedone
- Polymer Science, Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marleen Kamperman
- Polymer Science, Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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10
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Vahid H, Scacchi A, Yang X, Ala-Nissila T, Sammalkorpi M. Modified Poisson–Boltzmann theory for polyelectrolytes in monovalent salt solutions with finite-size ions. J Chem Phys 2022; 156:214906. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0092273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a soft-potential-enhanced Poisson–Boltzmann (SPB) theory to efficiently capture ion distributions and electrostatic potential around rodlike charged macromolecules. The SPB model is calibrated with a coarse-grained particle-based model for polyelectrolytes (PEs) in monovalent salt solutions as well as compared to a full atomistic molecular dynamics simulation with the explicit solvent. We demonstrate that our modification enables the SPB theory to accurately predict monovalent ion distributions around a rodlike PE in a wide range of ion and charge distribution conditions in the weak-coupling regime. These include excess salt concentrations up to 1M and ion sizes ranging from small ions, such as Na+ or Cl−, to softer and larger ions with a size comparable to the PE diameter. The work provides a simple way to implement an enhancement that effectively captures the influence of ion size and species into the PB theory in the context of PEs in aqueous salt solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Vahid
- Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11000, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Alberto Scacchi
- Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11000, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Xiang Yang
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11000, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
- Quantum Technology Finland Center of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11000, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Tapio Ala-Nissila
- Quantum Technology Finland Center of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11000, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Mathematical Modelling and Department of Mathematical Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Sammalkorpi
- Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
- Academy of Finland Center of Excellence in Life-Inspired Hybrid Materials (LIBER), Aalto University, P.O. Box 16100, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
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11
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Zheng K, Chen K, Ren W, Yang J, Zhao J. Shear-Induced Counterion Release of a Polyelectrolyte. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c02275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kaikai Zheng
- Beijing National Research Center for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Kuo Chen
- Beijing National Research Center for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Weibin Ren
- Beijing National Research Center for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jingfa Yang
- Beijing National Research Center for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jiang Zhao
- Beijing National Research Center for Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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12
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Ghasemi M, Larson RG. Future Directions in Physiochemical Modeling of the Thermodynamics of Polyelectrolyte Coacervates (
PECs
). AIChE J 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/aic.17646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Ghasemi
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor Michigan USA
| | - Ronald G. Larson
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor Michigan USA
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13
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Evidence of Many-Body Interactions in the Virial Coefficients of Polyelectrolyte Gels. Gels 2022; 8:gels8020096. [PMID: 35200477 PMCID: PMC8871429 DOI: 10.3390/gels8020096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Simulation studies of aqueous polymer solutions, and heuristic arguments by De Gennes for aqueous polyethylene oxide polymer solutions, have suggested that many-body interactions can give rise to the ‘anomalous’ situation in which the second osmotic virial coefficient is positive, while the third virial coefficient is negative. This phenomenon was later confirmed in analytic calculations of the phase behavior and the osmotic pressure of complex fluids exhibiting cooperative self-assembly into extended dynamic polymeric structures by Dudowicz et al. In the present study, we experimentally confirm the occurrence of this osmotic virial sign inversion phenomenon for several highly charged model polyelectrolyte gels (poly(acrylic acid), poly(styrene sulfonate), DNA, hyaluronic acid), where the virial coefficients are deduced from osmotic pressure measurements. Our observations qualitatively accord with experimental and simulation studies indicating that polyelectrolyte materials exhibit supramolecular assembly in solution, another symptomatic property of fluids exhibiting many-body interactions. We also find that the inversion in the variation of the second (A2) and third (A2) virial coefficients upon approach to phase separation does not occur in uncharged poly(vinyl acetate) gels. Finally, we briefly discuss the estimation of the osmotic compressibility of swollen polyelectrolyte gels from neutron scattering measurements as an alternative to direct, time-consuming and meticulous osmotic pressure measurements. We conclude by summarizing some general trends and suggesting future research directions of natural and synthetic polyelectrolyte hydrogels.
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14
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Duan
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Key Laboratory of Computational Physical Sciences, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, P. R. China
| | - Weihua Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Key Laboratory of Computational Physical Sciences, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, P. R. China
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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15
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Pachpinde S, Natarajan U. Conformations, inter-molecular structure and hydrogen bond dynamics of neutral and cationic poly(vinyl amine) in aqueous solution. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2021.1968389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sushil Pachpinde
- Macromolecular Modeling and Simulation Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Upendra Natarajan
- Macromolecular Modeling and Simulation Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Madras, Chennai, India
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16
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Horkay F, Chremos A, Douglas JF, Jones R, Lou J, Xia Y. Comparative experimental and computational study of synthetic and natural bottlebrush polyelectrolyte solutions. J Chem Phys 2021; 155:074901. [PMID: 34418934 DOI: 10.1063/5.0061649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We systematically investigate model synthetic and natural bottlebrush polyelectrolyte solutions through an array of experimental techniques (osmometry and neutron and dynamic light scattering) along with molecular dynamics simulations to characterize and contrast their structures over a wide range of spatial and time scales. In particular, we perform measurements on solutions of aggrecan and the synthetic bottlebrush polymer, poly(sodium acrylate), and simulations of solutions of highly coarse-grained charged bottlebrush molecules having different degrees of side-branch density and inclusion of an explicit solvent and ion hydration effects. While both systems exhibit a general tendency toward supramolecular organization in solution, bottlebrush poly(sodium acrylate) solutions exhibit a distinctive "polyelectrolyte peak" in their structure factor, but no such peak is observed in aggrecan solutions. This qualitative difference in scattering properties, and thus polyelectrolyte solution organization, is attributed to a concerted effect of the bottlebrush polymer topology and the solvation of the polymer backbone and counterions. The coupling of the polyelectrolyte topological structure with the counterion distribution about the charged polymer molecules along with direct polymer segmental hydration makes their solution organization and properties "tunable," a phenomenon that has significant ramifications for biological function and disease as well as for numerous materials applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Horkay
- Section on Quantitative Imaging and Tissue Sciences, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Alexandros Chremos
- Section on Quantitative Imaging and Tissue Sciences, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Jack F Douglas
- Material Measurement Laboratory, Material Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
| | - Ronald Jones
- Material Measurement Laboratory, Material Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
| | - Junzhe Lou
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Yan Xia
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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17
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Schimmel T, Bohrisch J, Anghel DF, Oberdisse J, von Klitzing R. Influence of intramolecular charge coupling on intermolecular interactions of polycarboxybetaines in aqueous solution and in polyelectrolyte multilayers. Mol Phys 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/00268976.2021.1936676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schimmel
- Fraunhofer–Institut für Angewandte Polymerforschung, Golm, Postdam, Germany
| | - Jörg Bohrisch
- Fraunhofer–Institut für Angewandte Polymerforschung, Golm, Postdam, Germany
| | - Dan F. Anghel
- Laboratory of Colloids, “Ilie Murgulescu” Institute of Physical Chemistry, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Julian Oberdisse
- Laboratoire Charles Coulomb (L2C), Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Laboratoire Léon Brillouin (LLB), CEA/CNRS, CEA Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Regine von Klitzing
- Soft Matter at Interfaces, Department of Physics, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
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18
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Sayko R, Tian Y, Liang H, Dobrynin AV. Charged Polymers: From Polyelectrolyte Solutions to Polyelectrolyte Complexes. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c01171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Sayko
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Yuan Tian
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Heyi Liang
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Andrey V. Dobrynin
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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19
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Cellulose Nanocrystals as Template for Improving the Crystallinity of Two-Dimensional Covalent Organic Framework Films. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13101561. [PMID: 34068082 PMCID: PMC8152767 DOI: 10.3390/polym13101561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 05/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the rapid development of two-dimensional covalent organic frameworks (2D COFs) in recent years, it remains a great challenge to synthesize highly crystalline COF materials. Here, a CNC-assisted approach was adopted to synthesize high crystallinity COF materials. A series of 2D COF films were synthesized at the air–water interface by using cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) as the template. The occurrence of Schiff reactions based on the imine bond was demonstrated by Raman spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) exhibited the appearances of 2D COF films were flower-like. When CNCs were added to a certain extent, the size of a single petal in the flowers gradually increased with the amount of CNCs. The film with large petals was characterized by Ultraviolet–Visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV–Vis DRS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and selected area electron diffraction (SAED). In UV–Vis DRS curves, the S-band of COF-366 film was red-shifted by 24 nm compared with that of 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-aminophenyl)-21H,23H-porphyrin (TAPP), confirming the existence of extended conjugation in COF-366 film. XPS was used to identify the surface composition of the sample. The N1s signal of the film indicated that each TAPP formed four imine bonds with 2,5-dihydroxyterephthalaldehyde (DHTA) in COF-366 film. TEM images showed that CNCs had an influence on the crystal size. It was observed from SAED that the crystallinity of the film with CNCs was higher than the film without CNCs. This work provided a new template for improving the crystallinity of 2D COF films.
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20
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Theory of Charged Gels: Swelling, Elasticity, and Dynamics. Gels 2021; 7:gels7020049. [PMID: 33919122 PMCID: PMC8167639 DOI: 10.3390/gels7020049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The fundamental attributes of charged hydrogels containing predominantly water and controllable amounts of low molar mass electrolytes are of tremendous significance in biological context and applications in healthcare. However, a rigorous theoretical formulation of gel behavior continues to be a challenge due to the presence of multiple length and time scales in the system which operate simultaneously. Furthermore, chain connectivity, the electrostatic interaction, and the hydrodynamic interaction all lead to long-range interactions. In spite of these complications, considerable progress has been achieved over the past several decades in generating theories of variable complexity. The present review presents an analytically tractable theory by accounting for correlations emerging from topological, electrostatic, and hydrodynamic interactions. Closed-form formulas are derived for charged hydrogels to describe their swelling equilibrium, elastic moduli, and the relationship between microscopic properties such as gel diffusion and macroscopic properties such as elasticity. In addition, electrostatic coupling between charged moieties and their ion clouds, which significantly modifies the elastic diffusion coefficient of gels, and various scaling laws are presented. The theoretical formulas summarized here are useful to adequately capture the essentials of the physics of charged gels and to design new hydrogels with specified elastic and dynamical properties.
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21
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Fong KD, Self J, McCloskey BD, Persson KA. Ion Correlations and Their Impact on Transport in Polymer-Based Electrolytes. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kara D. Fong
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Julian Self
- Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Bryan D. McCloskey
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Kristin A. Persson
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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22
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Kafetzi M, Pispas S. Multifaceted pH and Temperature Induced Self‐Assembly of P(DMAEMA‐
co
‐LMA)‐
b
‐POEGMA Terpolymers and Their Cationic Analogues in Aqueous Media. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.202000358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Martha Kafetzi
- Theoretical and Physical Chemistry Institute National Hellenic Research Foundation 48 Vassileos Constantinou Avenue Athens 11635 Greece
| | - Stergios Pispas
- Theoretical and Physical Chemistry Institute National Hellenic Research Foundation 48 Vassileos Constantinou Avenue Athens 11635 Greece
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey V. Dobrynin
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Michael Jacobs
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
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24
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Zhao J. Studying the physics of charged macromolecules by single molecule fluorescence spectroscopy. J Chem Phys 2020; 153:170903. [PMID: 33167636 DOI: 10.1063/5.0024324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well documented that conventional methods such as dynamic light scattering have encountered difficulties in characterizing charged macromolecules and, therefore, it is desirable that new methods and techniques are introduced. With the ultra-high sensitivity, single molecule fluorescence spectroscopy has successfully lowered the detection limit considerably and enabled measurement under extreme dilution conditions-around the concentration of 10-9M-at which the effect of inter-chain electrostatic repulsion is suppressed. Furthermore, the excellent spatial and temporal resolution as well as the capacity of molecular recognition of these methods help in obtaining rich information of charged macromolecules. This paper summarizes the applications of single molecule fluorescence spectroscopy, especially fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and photon counting histogram, in the studies on charged macromolecules in aqueous solutions and plenty of new information has been revealed on the molecular conformation, counterion distribution, and a few important governing factors. The powerfulness and effectiveness of single molecule fluorescence spectroscopy make it promising in the investigations of charged macromolecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Zhao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China and The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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25
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Duan C, Li W, Wang R. Conformation of a single polyelectrolyte in poor solvents. J Chem Phys 2020; 153:064901. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0017371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Duan
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Key Laboratory of Computational Physical Sciences, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Weihua Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Key Laboratory of Computational Physical Sciences, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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26
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27
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Nikam R, Xu X, Kanduč M, Dzubiella J. Competitive sorption of monovalent and divalent ions by highly charged globular macromolecules. J Chem Phys 2020; 153:044904. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0018306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Nikam
- Research Group for Simulations of Energy Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1, D-14109 Berlin, Germany
- Institut für Physik, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstr. 15, D-12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Xiao Xu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiao Ling Wei, Nanjing 210094, People’s Republic of China
| | - Matej Kanduč
- Department of Theoretical Physics, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Joachim Dzubiella
- Research Group for Simulations of Energy Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1, D-14109 Berlin, Germany
- Applied Theoretical Physics – Computational Physics, Physikalisches Institut, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Str. 3, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
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28
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Horkay F, Chremos A, Douglas JF, L Jones R, Lou J, Xia Y. Systematic investigation of synthetic polyelectrolyte bottlebrush solutions by neutron and dynamic light scattering, osmometry, and molecular dynamics simulation. J Chem Phys 2020; 152:194904. [PMID: 33687251 DOI: 10.1063/5.0007271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a great interest in the synthesis and characterization of polyelectrolytes that mimic naturally occurring bottlebrush polyelectrolytes to capitalize on the unique properties of this class of macromolecules. Charged bottlebrush polymers form the protective mucus layer in the lungs, stomach, and orifices of animals and provide osmotic stabilization and lubrication to joints. In the present work, we systematically investigate bottlebrush poly(sodium acrylates) through a combination of measurements of solution properties (osmometry, small-angle neutron scattering, and dynamic light scattering) and molecular dynamics simulations, where the bottlebrush properties are compared in each case to their linear polymer counterparts. These complementary experimental and computational methods probe vastly different length- and timescales, allowing for a comprehensive characterization of the supermolecular structure and dynamics of synthetic polyelectrolyte bottlebrush molecules in solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Horkay
- Section on Quantitative Imaging and Tissue Sciences, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Alexandros Chremos
- Section on Quantitative Imaging and Tissue Sciences, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Jack F Douglas
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
| | - Ronald L Jones
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
| | - Junzhe Lou
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Yan Xia
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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29
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Gupit CI, Li X, Maekawa R, Hasegawa N, Iwase H, Takata S, Shibayama M. Nanostructures and Viscosities of Nafion Dispersions in Water/Ethanol from Dilute to Concentrated Regimes. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b02314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Caidric Indaya Gupit
- Institute for Solid State Physics, University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa 277-8581, Japan
| | - Xiang Li
- Institute for Solid State Physics, University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa 277-8581, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Maekawa
- Toyota Motor Corporation, 1 Toyota-cho, Toyota, Aichi 471-8572, Japan
| | - Naoki Hasegawa
- Toyota Motor Corporation, 1 Toyota-cho, Toyota, Aichi 471-8572, Japan
- Toyota Central R&D Laboratories, Inc., 41-1 Yokomichi, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1192, Japan
| | - Hiroki Iwase
- Neutron Science and Technology Center, Comprehensive Research Organization for Science and Society (CROSS), 162-1 Shirakata, Tokai, Ibaraki 319-1106, Japan
| | - Shinichi Takata
- Materials & Life Science Facility Division, J-PARC Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Tokai, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan
| | - Mitsuhiro Shibayama
- Institute for Solid State Physics, University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa 277-8581, Japan
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30
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Tarokh A, Karan K, Ponnurangam S. Atomistic MD Study of Nafion Dispersions: Role of Solvent and Counterion in the Aggregate Structure, Ionic Clustering, and Acid Dissociation. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b01663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Atefeh Tarokh
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Kunal Karan
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Sathish Ponnurangam
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
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31
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Pavlov GM, Dommes OA, Okatova OV, Gavrilova II, Panarin EF. Influence of Electrostatic Long-Range and Short-Range Effects on the Conformations of Flexible-Chain Linear Polyelectrolyte Macromolecules with Different Charge Density in Salt-Free Aqueous Solutions. POLYMER SCIENCE SERIES A 2019. [DOI: 10.1134/s0965545x19060087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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32
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Mejia A, Rodriguez L, Schmitt C, Andreu N, Favéro C, Braun O, Dupuis G, Deniau E, Reynaud S, Grassl B. Synthesis and Viscosimetric Behavior of Poly(acrylamide- co-2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonate) Obtained by Conventional and Adiabatic Gel Process via RAFT/MADIX Polymerization. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:11119-11125. [PMID: 31460210 PMCID: PMC6648298 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b00975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
High molar masses homopolymers of both acrylamide (AM) and 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonate (AMPS) as well as poly(AM-stat-AMPS) exhibiting a large range copolymer composition has been obtained via the optimization of a purely adiabatic gel process. Monomer concentrations ranging from 2.0 to 3.47 M have been successfully tested while keeping the control of the molar masses up to 5 × 106 g mol-1. The products have been characterized in terms of molecular mass and viscosimetric properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurora Mejia
- CNRS/UNIV
PAU & PAYS ADOUR/E2S UPPA, Institut des sciences analytiques et
de physicochimie pour l’environnement et les matériaux
(IPREM), UMR 5254, 64000 Pau, France
| | - Laurent Rodriguez
- CNRS/UNIV
PAU & PAYS ADOUR/E2S UPPA, Institut des sciences analytiques et
de physicochimie pour l’environnement et les matériaux
(IPREM), UMR 5254, 64000 Pau, France
- SNF
S.A.S., ZAC de Milieux, 42163 Andrézieux Cedex, France
| | - Charlène Schmitt
- CNRS/UNIV
PAU & PAYS ADOUR/E2S UPPA, Institut des sciences analytiques et
de physicochimie pour l’environnement et les matériaux
(IPREM), UMR 5254, 64000 Pau, France
| | - Nathalie Andreu
- CNRS/UNIV
PAU & PAYS ADOUR/E2S UPPA, Institut des sciences analytiques et
de physicochimie pour l’environnement et les matériaux
(IPREM), UMR 5254, 64000 Pau, France
| | - Cedrick Favéro
- SNF
S.A.S., ZAC de Milieux, 42163 Andrézieux Cedex, France
| | - Olivier Braun
- SNF
S.A.S., ZAC de Milieux, 42163 Andrézieux Cedex, France
| | - Guillaume Dupuis
- SNF
S.A.S., ZAC de Milieux, 42163 Andrézieux Cedex, France
- Poweltec,
ZAC RUEIL 2000, 3 Rue
Paul Heroult, 92500 Rueil Malmaison, France
| | - Elise Deniau
- CNRS/UNIV
PAU & PAYS ADOUR/E2S UPPA, Institut des sciences analytiques et
de physicochimie pour l’environnement et les matériaux
(IPREM), UMR 5254, 64000 Pau, France
| | - Stéphanie Reynaud
- CNRS/UNIV
PAU & PAYS ADOUR/E2S UPPA, Institut des sciences analytiques et
de physicochimie pour l’environnement et les matériaux
(IPREM), UMR 5254, 64000 Pau, France
| | - Bruno Grassl
- CNRS/UNIV
PAU & PAYS ADOUR/E2S UPPA, Institut des sciences analytiques et
de physicochimie pour l’environnement et les matériaux
(IPREM), UMR 5254, 64000 Pau, France
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33
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Jia D, Muthukumar M. Effect of Salt on the Ordinary-Extraordinary Transition in Solutions of Charged Macromolecules. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:5886-5896. [PMID: 30896938 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b00562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Using dynamic light scattering technique, we address the role of added salt at higher concentrations on the "ordinary-extraordinary" transition in solutions of charged macromolecules. The "ordinary" behavior has previously been associated with a "fast" diffusion coefficient which is independent of salt concentration Cs and polymer concentration Cp if the ratio Cp/ Cs is above a threshold value. The "extraordinary" transition is associated with formation of aggregates, with a "slow" diffusion coefficient, formed from similarly charged macromolecules. By investigating aqueous solutions of sodium poly(styrenesulfonate) and sodium chloride with variations in Cp, Cs, and polymer molecular weight, Mw, we report the emergence of a new diffusive "fast" relaxation mode at higher values of Cp, Cs, and Mw, in addition to the previously known "fast" and "slow" relaxation modes. Furthermore, we find that Mw plays a crucial role on the collective dynamics of polyelectrolyte solutions with salt, instead of just the Cp/ Cs ratio as previously postulated. As Mw is progressively decreased, the salty solution exhibits dynamical transitions from three modes to two modes and then to one mode of relaxation. The emergence of the new fast mode and the dynamical transitions are in marked departure from the general premise of the ordinary-extraordinary transition developed over several decades. In an effort to rationalize our experimental findings we present a theory for the collective dynamics of polyelectrolyte solutions with salt by addressing the coupling between the relaxations of polyelectrolyte chains, counterions from the polymer and added salt, and co-ions from the salt. The predictions are in qualitative agreement with experimental findings. The present combined work of experiments and theory forms the basis for accurately characterizing dynamics of charged macromolecules in salty solutions, which are ubiquitous in biological systems and polyelectrolyte-based technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Jia
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering , University of Massachusetts , Amherst , Massachusetts 01003 , United States
| | - Murugappan Muthukumar
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering , University of Massachusetts , Amherst , Massachusetts 01003 , United States
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34
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Kumar R, Lokitz B, Long TE, Sumpter BG. Enhanced scattering induced by electrostatic correlations in concentrated solutions of salt-free dipolar and ionic polymers. J Chem Phys 2018; 149:163336. [PMID: 30384727 DOI: 10.1063/1.5044637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a generalized theory for studying the static monomer density-density correlation function (structure factor) in concentrated solutions and melts of dipolar as well as ionic polymers. The theory captures effects of electrostatic fluctuations on the structure factor and provides insights into the origin of experimentally observed enhanced scattering at ultralow wavevectors in salt-free ionic polymers. It is shown that the enhanced scattering can originate from a coupling between the fluctuations of electric polarization and monomer density. Local and non-local effects of the polarization resulting from finite sized permanent dipoles and ion-pairs in dipolar and charge regulating ionic polymers, respectively, are considered. Theoretical calculations reveal that, similar to the salt-free ionic polymers, the structure factor for dipolar polymers can also exhibit a peak at a finite wavevector and enhanced scattering at ultralow wavevectors. Although consideration of dipolar interactions leads to attractive interactions between monomers, the enhanced scattering at ultralow wavevectors is predicted solely on the basis of the electrostatics of weakly inhomogeneous dipolar and ionic polymers without considering the effects of any aggregates or phase separation. Thus, we conclude that neither aggregation nor phase separation is necessary for observing the enhanced scattering at ultralow wavevectors in salt-free dipolar and ionic polymers. For charge regulating ionic polymers, it is shown that electrostatic interactions between charged monomers get screened with a screening length, which depends not only on the concentration of "free" counterions and coions, but also on the concentration of "adsorbed" ions on the polymer chains. Qualitative comparisons with the experimental scattering curves for ionic and dipolar polymer melts are presented using the theory developed in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev Kumar
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - Bradley Lokitz
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - Timothy E Long
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
| | - Bobby G Sumpter
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
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35
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Horkay F, Basser PJ, Hecht AM, Geissler E. Ionic effects in semi-dilute biopolymer solutions: A small angle scattering study. J Chem Phys 2018; 149:163312. [PMID: 30384682 PMCID: PMC6910579 DOI: 10.1063/1.5028351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Systematic investigations using neutron and X-ray small angle scattering in near-physiological salt solutions were made to reveal the effect of polymer concentration, pH, and calcium ion concentration on the structure of semi-dilute solutions of four model biopolymers [polyaspartic acid, DNA, chondroitin sulfate, and hyaluronic acid (HA)] representing typical backbone structures. In the low q range (<0.01 Å-1), the scattering response I(q) is dominated by scattering from large clusters. In the intermediate q range, I(q) varies approximately as q -1, exposing the linear nature of the scatterers. In these polyelectrolyte solutions, the correlation length L displays a power law dependence on the polymer concentration c that resembles that of neutral polymer solutions. L increases with increasing calcium chloride concentration and with decreasing pH. The effect of the different divalent cations, Ba, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Mn, on the structure of DNA solutions is practically identical. However, in mixed salt conditions at the same ionic strength, the combined effect of mono- and divalent counter-ions on the structure of the polymer solutions deviates significantly from additivity. Anomalous small angle X-ray scattering observations on both DNA and HA solutions reveal that the divalent strontium counter-ions form a tight sheath around the polymer chain. The shape of the divalent ion cloud is similar in these two systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Horkay
- Section on Quantitative Imaging and Tissue Sciences, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, 49 Convent Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-5772, USA
| | - Peter J. Basser
- Section on Quantitative Imaging and Tissue Sciences, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, 49 Convent Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-5772, USA
| | - Anne-Marie Hecht
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire de Physique CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, F-38402 Saint Martin d’Hères Cedex, France
| | - Erik Geissler
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire de Physique CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, F-38402 Saint Martin d’Hères Cedex, France
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36
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Topologically frustrated dynamics of crowded charged macromolecules in charged hydrogels. Nat Commun 2018; 9:2248. [PMID: 29884894 PMCID: PMC5993817 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04661-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Movement of charged macromolecules in crowded aqueous environments is a ubiquitous phenomenon vital to the various living processes and formulations of materials for health care. While study of diffusion of tracer amounts of probe macromolecules trapped inside concentrated solutions, gels, or random media has led to an enhanced understanding of this complex process, the collective dynamics of charged macromolecules embedded inside congested charge-bearing matrices still remains to be fully explored. Here we report a frustrated dynamics of DNA and synthetic polyelectrolytes inside a charged host hydrogel where the guest molecules do not diffuse. Instead, they exhibit a family of relaxation processes arising from a combination of conformational entropy and local chain dynamics, which are frustrated by the confinement from the gel. We also have developed a model explaining this new universality class of non-diffusive topologically frustrated dynamics of charged macromolecules. Diffusion of molecules in crowded environment is important for various living systems, but the dynamics of charged molecules in charged matrices remains still unexplored. Here the authors report a dynamics of DNA and polyelectrolytes in a charged hydrogel where the guest molecules do not diffuse but experience topologically frustrated dynamics.
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38
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Muthukumar M. 50th Anniversary Perspective: A Perspective on Polyelectrolyte Solutions. Macromolecules 2017; 50:9528-9560. [PMID: 29296029 PMCID: PMC5746850 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b01929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
From the beginning of life with the information-containing polymers until the present era of a plethora of water-based materials in health care industry and biotechnology, polyelectrolytes are ubiquitous with a broad range of structural and functional properties. The main attribute of polyelectrolyte solutions is that all molecules are strongly correlated both topologically and electrostatically in their neutralizing background of charged ions in highly polarizable solvent. These strong correlations and the necessary use of numerous variables in experiments on polyelectrolytes have presented immense challenges toward fundamental understanding of the various behaviors of charged polymeric systems. This Perspective presents the author's subjective summary of several conceptual advances and the remaining persistent challenges in the contexts of charge and size of polymers, structures in homogeneous solutions, thermodynamic instability and phase transitions, structural evolution with oppositely charged polymers, dynamics in polyelectrolyte solutions, kinetics of phase separation, mobility of charged macromolecules between compartments, and implications to biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Muthukumar
- Department of Polymer Science
and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
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39
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Affiliation(s)
- Anand Rahalkar
- Material
Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
- Chemical
and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main MS-362, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Murugappan Muthukumar
- Polymer
Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 120 Governors
Drive, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
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40
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Qu C, Jing B, Wang S, Zhu Y. Distinct Effects of Multivalent Macroion and Simple Ion on the Structure and Local Electric Environment of a Weak Polyelectrolyte in Aqueous Solution. J Phys Chem B 2017; 121:8829-8837. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b05387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chen Qu
- Department of Chemical
and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Benxin Jing
- Department of Chemical
and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering and
Materials Science, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Shengqin Wang
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*Stat), 117602 Singapore
| | - Yingxi Zhu
- Department of Chemical
and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering and
Materials Science, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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41
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Zhou X, Zhao K. How side chains affect conformation and electrical properties of poly(acrylic acid) in solution? Phys Chem Chem Phys 2017; 19:20559-20572. [PMID: 28730200 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp02460f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
To better understand the effect of side chains on the chain conformation and electrical properties of polyelectrolytes, dielectric measurements were carried out on solutions of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), poly(acrylic acid)-graft-dodecyl (PAA-g-dodecyl), and poly(acrylic acid)-graft-poly(ethylene oxide) (PAA-g-PEO) over a wide concentration range. Double dielectric relaxations with counterion distribution were observed for these polymers and a refined double-layer polarization model was proposed to analyze these, by which valuable information about conformations and interfacial electrokinetic properties was obtained. The transitional concentrations for the overlapping and entanglement of chains were identified from results for the dielectric increment and relaxation time. The concentration dependences of the ratio of effective charges were estimated from conductivity data. It was shown that effective charges on PAA were greatly influenced by PEO or dodecyl side chains, which caused steric hindrance of counterion binding and further dissociation of carboxylic groups or bound counterions. Moreover, a mutual superposition and offsetting effect of PEO and dodecyl side chains was observed. An enhancement in the interpenetration of counterion atmospheres as a result of side chains was also found. In addition, the rate constant ratio and the distance of counterion fluctuations perpendicular to the chains were estimated. It was demonstrated that the effects of side chains on the effective charges or ionization properties of GCP play an important role in their conformation, counterion distribution, and fluctuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinlu Zhou
- College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China.
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42
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Yu M, Qian L, Cui S. Reentrant Variation of Single-Chain Elasticity of Polyelectrolyte Induced by Monovalent Salt. J Phys Chem B 2017; 121:4257-4264. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b00696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miao Yu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced
Technologies of Materials (Ministry of Education), Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China
| | - Lu Qian
- Key Laboratory of Advanced
Technologies of Materials (Ministry of Education), Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China
| | - Shuxun Cui
- Key Laboratory of Advanced
Technologies of Materials (Ministry of Education), Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China
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43
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Brassinne J, Fustin CA, Gohy JF. Control over the assembly and rheology of supramolecular networks via multi-responsive double hydrophilic copolymers. Polym Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c6py02143c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
An orthogonal control over network formation and dynamics is achieved in metallo-supramolecular micellar gels via multi-responsive double hydrophilic copolymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérémy Brassinne
- Institute of Condensed Matter and Nanosciences (IMCN)
- Division of Bio and Soft Matter (BSMA)
- Université catholique de Louvain
- B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve
- Belgium
| | - Charles-André Fustin
- Institute of Condensed Matter and Nanosciences (IMCN)
- Division of Bio and Soft Matter (BSMA)
- Université catholique de Louvain
- B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve
- Belgium
| | - Jean-François Gohy
- Institute of Condensed Matter and Nanosciences (IMCN)
- Division of Bio and Soft Matter (BSMA)
- Université catholique de Louvain
- B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve
- Belgium
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44
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Knaapila M, Stewart B, Costa T, Rogers SE, Pragana J, Fonseca SM, Valente AJM, Ramos ML, Murtinho D, Pereira JC, Mallavia R, Burrows HD. Incorporation of a Cationic Conjugated Polyelectrolyte CPE within an Aqueous Poly(vinyl alcohol) Sol. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b01895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matti Knaapila
- Department
of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Beverly Stewart
- Department
of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Telma Costa
- Department
of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sarah E. Rogers
- Rutherford
Appleton
Laboratory, ISIS STFC, Chilton OX11 0QX, Oxon, U.K
| | - Joana Pragana
- Department
of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sofia M. Fonseca
- Department
of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Artur J. M. Valente
- Department
of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - M. Luisa Ramos
- Department
of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Dina Murtinho
- Department
of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Jorge Costa Pereira
- Department
of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Mallavia
- Instituto
de Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad Miquel Hernandez de Elche, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 03202 Elche, Spain
| | - Hugh D. Burrows
- Department
of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
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45
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Muthukumar M. Electrostatic Correlations in Polyelectrolyte Solutions. POLYMER SCIENCE SERIES A 2016; 58:852-863. [PMID: 29707042 DOI: 10.1134/s0965545x16060146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The major attribute of polyelectrolyte solutions is that all chains are strongly correlated both electrostatically and topologically. Even in very dilute solutions such that the chains are not interpenetrating, the chains are still strongly correlated. These correlations are manifest in the measured scattering intensity when such solutions are subjected to light, X-ray, and neutron radiation. The behavior of scattering intensity from polyelectrolyte solutions is qualitatively different from that of solutions of uncharged polymers. Using the technique introduced by Sir Sam Edwards, and extending the earlier work by the author on the thermodynamics of polyelectrolyte solutions, extrapolation formulas are derived for the scattering intensity from polyelectrolyte solutions. The emergence of the polyelectrolyte peak and its concentration dependence are derived. The derived theory shows that there are five regimes. Published experimental data from many laboratories are also collected into a master figure and a comparison between the present theory and experiments is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Muthukumar
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, 01003 USA
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46
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Mehrdad A, Taleb-Abbasi M. Influence of some inorganic salts on the intrinsic viscosity of poly(acrylic acid) in aqueous solutions. J Mol Liq 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2016.08.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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47
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Ordinary-extraordinary transition in dynamics of solutions of charged macromolecules. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:12627-12632. [PMID: 27791143 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1612249113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The occurrence of the ubiquitous and intriguing "ordinary-extraordinary" behavior of dynamics in solutions of charged macromolecules is addressed theoretically by explicitly considering counterions around the macromolecules. The collective and coupled dynamics of macromolecules and their counterion clouds in salt-free conditions are shown to lead to the "ordinary" behavior (also called the "fast" mode) where diffusion coefficients are independent of molar mass and polymer concentration and are comparable to those of isolated metallic ions in aqueous media, in agreement with experimental facts observed repeatedly over the past four decades. The dipoles arising from adsorbed counterions on polymer backbones can form many pairwise physical cross-links, leading to microgel-like aggregates. Balancing the swelling from excluded volume effects and counterion pressure with elasticity of the microgel, we show that there is a threshold value of a combination of polymer concentration and electrolyte concentration for the occurrence of the "extraordinary" phase (also called the "slow" mode) and the predicted properties of diffusion coefficient for this phase are in qualitative agreement with well-known experimental data.
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48
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Xu G, Luo S, Yang Q, Yang J, Zhao J. Single chains of strong polyelectrolytes in aqueous solutions at extreme dilution: Conformation and counterion distribution. J Chem Phys 2016; 145:144903. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4964649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Guofeng Xu
- Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Shuangjiang Luo
- Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Qingbo Yang
- Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jingfa Yang
- Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jiang Zhao
- Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
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49
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Ritacco HA, Fernández-Leyes M, Domínguez C, Langevin D. Electric Birefringence of Aqueous Solutions of a Rigid Polyelectrolyte. Polarization Mechanisms and Anomalous Birefringence Signals. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b01240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hernán A. Ritacco
- Instituto
de Física del Sur (IFISUR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) and Departamento de
Física, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), Av LN Alem
1253, 8000 Bahía
Blanca, Argentina
| | - Marcos Fernández-Leyes
- Instituto
de Física del Sur (IFISUR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) and Departamento de
Física, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), Av LN Alem
1253, 8000 Bahía
Blanca, Argentina
| | - Claudia Domínguez
- Instituto
de Física del Sur (IFISUR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) and Departamento de
Física, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), Av LN Alem
1253, 8000 Bahía
Blanca, Argentina
| | - Dominique Langevin
- Laboratoire
de Physique des Solides, CNRS, Université Paris Saclay, Université Paris-Sud, Bât 510, 91405 Orsay, France
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50
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Shokri E, Hosseini M, Faridbod F, Rahaie M. Synthesis and Assessment of DNA/Silver Nanoclusters Probes for Optimal and Selective Detection of Tristeza Virus Mild Strains. J Fluoresc 2016; 26:1795-803. [DOI: 10.1007/s10895-016-1871-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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