Neurosurgical treatments of depression

Prelimbic Cortical Stimulation Induces Antidepressant-like Responses through Dopaminergic-Dependent and -Independent Mechanisms

High-frequency stimulation (HFS) is a promising therapy for patients with depression. However, the mechanisms underlying the HFS-induced antidepressant-like effects on susceptibility and resilience to depressive-like behaviors remain obscure. Given that dopaminergic neurotransmission has been found to be disrupted in depression, we investigated the dopamine(DA)-dependent mechanism of the antidepressant-like effects of HFS of the prelimbic cortex (HFS PrL). We performed HFS PrL in a rat model of mild chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) together with 6-hydroxydopamine lesioning in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) and ventral tegmental area (VTA). Animals were assessed for anxiety, anhedonia, and behavioral despair. We also examined levels of corticosterone, hippocampal neurotransmitters, neuroplasticity-related proteins, and morphological changes in dopaminergic neurons. We found 54.3% of CUS animals exhibited decreased sucrose consumption and were designated as CUS-susceptible, while the others were designated CUS-resilient. HFS PrL in both the CUS-susceptible and CUS-resilient animals significantly increased hedonia, reduced anxiety, decreased forced swim immobility, enhanced hippocampal DA and serotonin levels, and reduced corticosterone levels when compared with the respective sham groups. The hedonic-like effects were abolished in both DRN- and VTA-lesioned groups, suggesting the effects of HFS PrL are DA-dependent. Interestingly, VTA-lesioned sham animals had increased anxiety and forced swim immobility, which was reversed by HFS PrL. The VTA-lesioned HFS PrL animals also had elevated DA levels, and reduced p-p38 MAPK and NF-κB levels when compared to VTA-lesioned sham animals. These findings suggest that HFS PrL in stressed animals leads to profound antidepressant-like responses possibly through both DA-dependent and -independent mechanisms.

Neuromodulation and Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Depression: A Scoping Review

The 'neurogenesis hypothesis of depression' emphasizes the importance of upregulated hippocampal neurogenesis for the efficacy of antidepressant treatment. Neuromodulation is a promising therapeutic method that stimulates neural circuitries to treat neuropsychiatric illnesses. We conducted a scoping review on the neurogenic and antidepressant outcomes of neuromodulation in animal models of depression. PubMed, Web of Science, and PsycInfo were comprehensively searched for full-text English articles from inception to October 5, 2021. Data screening and extraction were conducted independently by two researchers. Seventeen eligible studies were included in this review. The majority of studies used non-invasive neuromodulation (n = 14) and assessed neurogenesis using neural proliferation (n = 16) and differentiation markers (n = 9). Limited reports (n = 2) used neurogenic inhibitors to evaluate the role of neurogenesis on the depressive-like behavioral outcomes. Overall, neuromodulation substantially effectuated both hippocampal cell proliferation and antidepressant-like behavior in animal models of depression, with some providing evidence for enhanced neuronal differentiation and maturation. The proposed neurogenic-related mechanisms mediating the neuromodulation efficacies included neurotrophic processes, anti-apoptotic pathways, and normalization of HPA axis functions. Further research is warranted to explore the role of neuromodulation-induced neurogenic effects on treatment efficacies and to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Pre-Clinical Development of Robot-Assisted Ventriculoscopy for 3D Image Reconstruction and Guidance of Deep Brain Neurosurgery

Conventional neuro-navigation can be challenged in targeting deep brain structures via transventricular neuroendoscopy due to unresolved geometric error following soft-tissue deformation. Current robot-assisted endoscopy techniques are fairly limited, primarily serving to planned trajectories and provide a stable scope holder. We report the implementation of a robot-assisted ventriculoscopy (RAV) system for 3D reconstruction, registration, and augmentation of the neuroendoscopic scene with intraoperative imaging, enabling guidance even in the presence of tissue deformation and providing visualization of structures beyond the endoscopic field-of-view. Phantom studies were performed to quantitatively evaluate image sampling requirements, registration accuracy, and computational runtime for two reconstruction methods and a variety of clinically relevant ventriculoscope trajectories. A median target registration error of 1.2 mm was achieved with an update rate of 2.34 frames per second, validating the RAV concept and motivating translation to future clinical studies.

Prelimbic cortical stimulation disrupts fear memory consolidation through ventral hippocampal dopamine D2 receptors

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Anxiety disorders pose one of the biggest threats to mental health worldwide, yet current therapeutics have been mostly ineffective due to issues with relapse, efficacy and toxicity of the medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a promising therapy for treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders including anxiety, but very little is known about the effects of deep brain stimulation on fear memories.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

In this study, we employed a standard tone-footshock fear conditioning paradigm and modified plus maze discriminative avoidance task to probe the effects of prelimbic cortex deep brain stimulation on various stages of memory.

KEY RESULTS

We identified memory consolidation stage as a critical time point to disrupt fear memory via prelimbic cortex deep brain stimulation. The observed disruption was partially modulated by the inactivation of the ventral hippocampus and the transient changes in ventral hippocampus dopamine (D₂ ) receptors expression upon prelimbic cortex deep brain stimulation. We also observed wide-scale changes of various neurotransmitters and their metabolites in ventral hippocampus, confirming its important role in response to prelimbic cortex deep brain stimulation.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

These findings highlight the molecular mechanism in the ventral hippocampus in response to prelimbic cortex stimulation and may have translational value, indicating that targeting the prelimbic cortex in the memory consolidation stage via non-invasive neuromodulation techniques may be a feasible therapeutic strategy against anxiety disorders.

Electrical Stimulation Normalizes c-Fos Expression in the Deep Cerebellar Nuclei of Depressive-like Rats: Implication of Antidepressant Activity

The electrical stimulation of specific brain targets has been shown to induce striking antidepressant effects. Despite that recent data have indicated that cerebellum is involved in emotional regulation, the mechanisms by which stimulation improved mood-related behaviors in the cerebellum remained largely obscure. Here, we investigated the stimulation effects of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), nucleus accumbens (NAc), and lateral habenular nucleus on the c-Fos neuronal activity in various deep cerebellar and vestibular nuclei using the unpredictable chronic mild stress (CMS) animal model of depression. Our results showed that stressed animals had increased number of c-Fos cells in the cerebellar dentate and fastigial nuclei, as well as in the spinal vestibular nucleus. To examine the stimulation effects, we found that vmPFC stimulation significantly decreased the c-Fos activity within the cerebellar fastigial nucleus as compared to the CMS sham. Similarly, there was also a reduction of c-Fos expression in the magnocellular part of the medial vestibular nucleus in vmPFC- and NAc core-stimulated animals when compared to the CMS sham. Correlational analyses showed that the anxiety measure of home-cage emergence escape latency was positively correlated with the c-Fos neuronal activity of the cerebellar fastigial and magnocellular and parvicellular parts of the interposed nuclei in CMS vmPFC-stimulated animals. Interestingly, there was a strong correlation among activation in these cerebellar nuclei, indicating that the antidepressant-like behaviors were possibly mediated by the vmPFC stimulation-induced remodeling within the forebrain-cerebellar neurocircuitry.

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex stimulation enhances memory and hippocampal neurogenesis in the middle-aged rats

Memory dysfunction is a key symptom of age-related dementia. Although recent studies have suggested positive effects of electrical stimulation for memory enhancement, its potential targets remain largely unknown. In this study, we hypothesized that spatially targeted deep brain stimulation of ventromedial prefrontal cortex enhanced memory functions in a middle-aged rat model. Our results show that acute stimulation enhanced the short-, but not the long-term memory in the novel-object recognition task. Interestingly, after chronic high-frequency stimulation, both the short- and long-term memories were robustly improved in the novel-object recognition test and Morris water-maze spatial task compared to sham. Our results also demonstrated that chronic ventromedial prefrontal cortex high-frequency stimulation upregulated neurogenesis-associated genes along with enhanced hippocampal cell proliferation. Importantly, these memory behaviors were strongly correlated with the hippocampal neurogenesis. Overall, these findings suggest that chronic ventromedial prefrontal cortex high-frequency stimulation may serve as a novel effective therapeutic target for dementia-related disorders.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04803.001

Memory loss in older people is a serious and widespread problem that affects up to 50% of those over the age of 85. It is a key symptom of dementia, but despite the growing impact of this disease on society, there are no treatments currently available that can effectively stop or delay the progression of the symptoms.

One therapy that may reduce memory loss is called deep brain stimulation. Electrodes are implanted into the brain and used to stimulate brain cells in particular areas of the brain to alter mental and emotional processes. Deep brain stimulation is already used to treat Parkinson's disease, depression and other conditions that affect how the brain works.

Liu et al. studied the effect of deep brain stimulation on memory in rats. The experiments show that middle-aged rats performed less well in short- and long-term memory tests than young rats. Next, Liu et al. investigated whether deep brain stimulation could improve memory in the middle-aged rats. The electrodes were positioned to stimulate a region near the front of the brain called the ‘ventromedial prefrontal cortex’; this region is important for the formation and recall of memories. Liu et al. then gave the rats a series of memory tasks that tested their recall after 90 minutes (to test their short-term memory), and after 24 hours (to test long-term memory).

The experiments reveal that a brief stimulation of brain cells in this region of the brain improved the rats' short-term memory, but not their long-term memory. However, more sustained stimulation of this region of the brain improved both the short-term and long-term memory of the rats. Furthermore, deep brain stimulation led to the formation of new brain cells in another region of the brain called the hippocampus, which is also involved in memory. The hippocampus had not been in direct contact with the electrodes so the increase in brain cells was due to its connections with the stimulated ventromedial prefrontal cortex.

Liu et al.'s findings suggest that deep brain stimulation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex has the potential to be developed into a therapy to treat dementia and other conditions that lead to memory loss in humans.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04803.002

Electrical stimulation alleviates depressive-like behaviors of rats: investigation of brain targets and potential mechanisms

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a promising therapy for patients with refractory depression. However, key questions remain with regard to which brain target(s) should be used for stimulation, and which mechanisms underlie the therapeutic effects. Here, we investigated the effect of DBS, with low- and high-frequency stimulation (LFS, HFS), in different brain regions (ventromedial prefrontal cortex, vmPFC; cingulate cortex, Cg; nucleus accumbens (NAc) core or shell; lateral habenula, LHb; and ventral tegmental area) on a variety of depressive-like behaviors using rat models. In the naive animal study, we found that HFS of the Cg, vmPFC, NAc core and LHb reduced anxiety levels and increased motivation for food. In the chronic unpredictable stress model, there was a robust depressive-like behavioral phenotype. Moreover, vmPFC HFS, in a comparison of all stimulated targets, produced the most profound antidepressant effects with enhanced hedonia, reduced anxiety and decreased forced-swim immobility. In the following set of electrophysiological and histochemical experiments designed to unravel some of the underlying mechanisms, we found that vmPFC HFS evoked a specific modulation of the serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), which have long been linked to mood. Finally, using a neuronal mapping approach by means of c-Fos expression, we found that vmPFC HFS modulated a brain circuit linked to the DRN and known to be involved in affect. In conclusion, HFS of the vmPFC produced the most potent antidepressant effects in naive rats and rats subjected to stress by mechanisms also including the DRN.

The antidepressant effects of ventromedial prefrontal cortex stimulation is associated with neural activation in the medial part of the subthalamic nucleus

The nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and cingulate gyrus (Cg) are key regions in the control of mood-related behaviors. Electrical stimulation of these areas induces antidepressant-like effects in both patients and animal models. Another structure whose limbic connections are receiving more interest in the context of mood-related behaviors is the medial part of the subthalamic nucleus (STN). Here, we tested the hypothesis that the mood-related effects of NAc, vmPFC, and Cg are accompanied by changes in the neural activity of the STN. We performed high-frequency stimulation (HFS) of the NAc, vmPFC, and Cg. Animals were behaviorally tested for hedonia and forced swim immobility; and the cellular activities in the different parts of the STN were assessed by means of c-Fos immunoreactivity (c-Fos-ir). Our results showed that HFS of the NAc and vmPFC, but not Cg reduced anhedonic-like and forced swim immobility behaviors. Interestingly, there was a significant increase of c-Fos-ir in the medial STN with HFS of the vmPFC, but not the NAc and Cg as compared to the sham. Correlation analysis showed that the medial STN is associated with the antidepressant-like behaviors in vmPFC HFS animals. No behavioral correlation was found with respect to behavioral outcome and activity in the lateral STN. In conclusion, HFS of the vmPFC induced profound antidepressant-like effects with enhanced neural activity in the medial part of the STN.