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Wang W, Pan D, Cheng T, Zhu H. Rational Design of a Skin- and Neuro-Attenuated Live Varicella Vaccine: A Review and Future Perspectives. Viruses 2022; 14:848. [PMID: 35632591 PMCID: PMC9144592 DOI: 10.3390/v14050848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection causes varicella, which remains a prominent public health concern in children. Current varicella vaccines adopt the live-attenuated Oka strain, vOka, which retains the ability to infect neurons, establish latency and reactivate, leading to vaccine-associated zoster in some vaccinees. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a safer next-generation varicella vaccine to help reduce vaccine hesitancy. This paper reviews the discovery and identification of the skin- and neuro-tropic factor, the open reading frame 7 (ORF7) of VZV, as well as the development of a skin- and neuro-attenuated live varicella vaccine comprising an ORF7-deficient mutant, v7D. This work could provide insights into the research of novel virus vaccines based on functional genomics and reverse genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (W.W.); (D.P.)
| | - Dequan Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (W.W.); (D.P.)
| | - Tong Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; (W.W.); (D.P.)
| | - Hua Zhu
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 070101, USA
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2
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Yan Y, Yuan Y, Wang J, Zhang Y, Liu H, Zhang Z. Meningitis/meningoencephalitis caused by varicella zoster virus reactivation: a retrospective single-center case series study. Am J Transl Res 2022; 14:491-500. [PMID: 35173869 PMCID: PMC8829630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Recent clinical studies showed that central nervous system (CNS) infection caused by varicella zoster virus (VZV) reactivation was more than previously reported. The clinical manifestations were often diverse and complex, and the outcome often varied among different patients. A systematic study is needed to provide clinical characteristics of the CNS VZV infection to help clinicians with clinical diagnosis and management. Toward that end, we retrospectively analyzed the clinical presentations, laboratory results, imaging findings, treatment and outcomes in74 patients with meningitis or meningoencephalitis caused by VZV reactivation in our center from August 2018 to December 2020. Fever, headache, cranial nerve involvement, cognitive changes, meningeal irritation, nausea, vomiting, and Ramsay-Hunt syndrome (RHS) were the most common clinical manifestations of VZV meningitis or meningoencephalitis. Brain MRI analysis showed no obvious abnormal manifestation. Compared to VZV meningoencephalitis, patients with VZV meningitis were younger (56.9±13.8 vs 66.1±8.5 years; P=0.01), and more likely to develope in winter (P=0.04), had lower cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) glucose content (3.68±0.79 vs 4.21±0.94 mmol/L, P=0.02), and a better outcome at discharge (P=0.00). The outcome at discharge was worse in male patients and when longer than 1.5 days passed between onset of the neurological symptoms to initiation of the antiviral treatment.Early intravenous antiviral treatment for VZV meningitis and meningoencephalitis is important and is expected for a good outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongxing Yan
- Department of Neurology, The Third People's Hospital of Hangzhou Zhejiang, China
| | - Yanrong Yuan
- Department of Neurology, The Third People's Hospital of Hangzhou Zhejiang, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Third People's Hospital of Hangzhou Zhejiang, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Third People's Hospital of Hangzhou Zhejiang, China
| | - Huili Liu
- Department of Neurology, The Third People's Hospital of Hangzhou Zhejiang, China
| | - Zuyong Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Third People's Hospital of Hangzhou Zhejiang, China
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3
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Pinski AN, Maroney KJ, Marzi A, Messaoudi I. Distinct transcriptional responses to fatal Ebola virus infection in cynomolgus and rhesus macaques suggest species-specific immune responses. Emerg Microbes Infect 2021; 10:1320-1330. [PMID: 34112056 PMCID: PMC8253202 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2021.1942229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Ebola virus (EBOV) is a negative single-stranded RNA virus within the Filoviridae family and the causative agent of Ebola virus disease (EVD). Nonhuman primates (NHPs), including cynomolgus and rhesus macaques, are considered the gold standard animal model to interrogate mechanisms of EBOV pathogenesis. However, despite significant genetic similarity (>90%), NHP species display different clinical presentation following EBOV infection, notably a ∼1-2 days delay in disease progression. Consequently, evaluation of therapeutics is generally conducted in rhesus macaques, whereas cynomolgus macaques are utilized to determine efficacy of preventative treatments, notably vaccines. This observation is in line with reported differences in disease severity and host responses between these two NHP following infection with simian varicella virus, influenza A and SARS-CoV-2. However, the molecular underpinnings of these differential outcomes following viral infections remain poorly defined. In this study, we compared published transcriptional profiles obtained from cynomolgus and rhesus macaques infected with the EBOV-Makona Guinea C07 using bivariate and regression analyses to elucidate differences in host responses. We report the presence of a shared core of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) reflecting EVD pathology, including aberrant inflammation, lymphopenia, and coagulopathy. However, the magnitudes of change differed between the two macaque species. These findings suggest that the differential clinical presentation of EVD in these two species is mediated by altered transcriptional responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda N Pinski
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine CA, USA
| | - Kevin J Maroney
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine CA, USA
| | - Andrea Marzi
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine CA, USA.,Center for Virus Research, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Institute for Immunology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
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Immune Responses to Varicella-Zoster Virus Glycoprotein E Formulated with Poly(Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) Nanoparticles and Nucleic Acid Adjuvants in Mice. Virol Sin 2020; 36:122-132. [PMID: 32757147 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-020-00261-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The subunit herpes zoster vaccine Shingrix is superior to attenuated vaccine Zostavax in both safety and efficacy, yet its unlyophilizable liposome delivery system and the limited supply of naturally sourced immunological adjuvant QS-21 still need to be improved. Based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) delivery systems that are stable during the lyophilization and rehydration process and using a double-emulsion (w/o/w) solvent evaporation method, we designed a series of nanoparticles with varicella-zoster virus antigen glycoprotein E (VZV-gE) as an antigen and nucleic acids including polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C) and phosphodiester CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG ODN), encapsulated as immune stimulators. While cationic lipids (DOTAP) have more potential than neutral lipids (DOPC) for activating gE-specific cell-mediated immunity (CMI) in immunized mice, especially when gE is encapsulated in and presented on the surface of nanoparticles, PLGA particles without lipids have the greatest potential to induce not only the highest gE-specific IgG titers but also the strongest gE-specific CMI responses, including the highest proportions of interferon-γ (IFN-γ)- and interleukin-2 (IL-2)-producing CD4+/CD8+ T cells according to a flow cytometry assay and the greatest numbers of IFN-γ- and IL-2-producing splenocytes according to an enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay. These results showed that immune-stimulating nucleic acids together with the PLGA delivery system showed promise as a safe and economical varicella and zoster vaccine candidate.
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Current In Vivo Models of Varicella-Zoster Virus Neurotropism. Viruses 2019; 11:v11060502. [PMID: 31159224 PMCID: PMC6631480 DOI: 10.3390/v11060502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), an exclusively human herpesvirus, causes chickenpox and establishes a latent infection in ganglia, reactivating decades later to produce zoster and associated neurological complications. An understanding of VZV neurotropism in humans has long been hampered by the lack of an adequate animal model. For example, experimental inoculation of VZV in small animals including guinea pigs and cotton rats results in the infection of ganglia but not a rash. The severe combined immune deficient human (SCID-hu) model allows the study of VZV neurotropism for human neural sub-populations. Simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of rhesus macaques (RM) closely resembles both human primary VZV infection and reactivation, with analyses at early times after infection providing valuable information about the extent of viral replication and the host immune responses. Indeed, a critical role for CD4 T-cell immunity during acute SVV infection as well as reactivation has emerged based on studies using RM. Herein we discuss the results of efforts from different groups to establish an animal model of VZV neurotropism.
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Wu PH, Chuang YS, Lin YT. Does Herpes Zoster Increase the Risk of Stroke and Myocardial Infarction? A Comprehensive Review. J Clin Med 2019; 8:jcm8040547. [PMID: 31013629 PMCID: PMC6518274 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8040547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes zoster (HZ) caused by varicella zoster virus (VZV) reactivation is characterized as a vesicular rash of unilateral distribution that can also cause multiple complications; such as post-herpetic neuralgia; ophthalmic zoster; and other neurological issues. VZV can also increase incident hemorrhagic or ischemic complications by causing inflammatory vasculopathy. Thus; emerging epidemiological and clinical data recognizes an association between HZ and subsequent acute strokes or myocardial infarction (MI). This study reviewed published articles to elucidate the association between HZ and cerebrovascular and cardiac events. Individuals exposed to HZ or herpes zoster ophthalmicus had 1.3 to 4-fold increased risks of cerebrovascular events. Higher risks were noted among younger patients (age < 40 years) within one year after an HZ episode. The elevated risk of CV events diminished gradually according to age and length of time after an HZ episode. The putative mechanisms of VZV vasculopathy were also discussed. Several studies showed that the development of herpes zoster and herpes zoster ophthalmicus increased the risks of stroke; transient ischemic attack; and acute cardiac events. The association between VZV infection and cardiovascular events requires further studies to establish the optimal antiviral treatment and zoster vaccination to reduce zoster-associated vascular risk
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Hsun Wu
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.
- Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.
| | - Yun-Shiuan Chuang
- Department of Family Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.
| | - Yi-Ting Lin
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.
- Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.
- Department of Family Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.
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7
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Skripuletz T, Pars K, Schulte A, Schwenkenbecher P, Yildiz Ö, Ganzenmueller T, Kuhn M, Spreer A, Wurster U, Pul R, Stangel M, Sühs KW, Trebst C. Varicella zoster virus infections in neurological patients: a clinical study. BMC Infect Dis 2018; 18:238. [PMID: 29801466 PMCID: PMC5970536 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-018-3137-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Varicella zoster virus (VZV) reactivation is a common infectious disease in neurology and VZV the second most frequent virus detected in encephalitis. This study investigated characteristics of clinical and laboratory features in patients with VZV infection. Methods Two hundred eighty two patients with VZV reactivation that were hospitalized in the department of neurology in the time from 2005 to 2013 were retrospectively evaluated. Results from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis were available from 85 patients. Results Trigeminal rash was the most common clinical manifestation, followed by segmental rash, CNS infection, facial nerve palsy, postherpetic neuralgia, and radiculitis. MRI of the brain performed in 25/33 patients with encephalitis/meningitis did not show any signs of infection in the brain parenchyma. Only one patient showed contrast enhancement in the hypoglossal nerve. General signs of infection such as fever or elevated CRP values were found in only half of the patients. Furthermore, rash was absent in a quarter of patients with CNS infection and facial nerve palsy, and thus, infection could only be proven by CSF analysis. Although slight inflammatory CSF changes occurred in few patients with isolated rash, the frequency was clearly higher in patients with CNS infection and facial nerve palsy. Conclusion Monosegmental herpes zoster is often uncomplicated and a diagnostic lumbar puncture is not essential. In contrast, CSF analysis is an essential diagnostic tool in patients with skin lesions and cranial nerve or CNS affection. In patients with neuro-psychiatric symptoms and inflammatory CSF changes analysis for VZV should be performed even in the absence of skin lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Skripuletz
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Kaweh Pars
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Alina Schulte
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Philipp Schwenkenbecher
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Özlem Yildiz
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Maike Kuhn
- TWINCORE Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Hannover and Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Annette Spreer
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Ulrich Wurster
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Refik Pul
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany.,Department of Neurology, University Clinic Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Martin Stangel
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Kurt-Wolfram Sühs
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Corinna Trebst
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str-1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
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8
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Attenuation of Simian Varicella Virus Infection by Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein in Rhesus Macaques. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.02253-17. [PMID: 29343566 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02253-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Simian varicella virus (SVV), the primate counterpart of varicella-zoster virus, causes varicella (chickenpox), establishes latency in ganglia, and reactivates to produce zoster. We previously demonstrated that a recombinant SVV expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (rSVV.eGFP) is slightly attenuated both in culture and in infected monkeys. Here, we generated two additional recombinant SVVs to visualize infected cells in vitro and in vivo One harbors eGFP fused to the N terminus of open reading frame 9 (ORF9) (rSVV.eGFP-2a-ORF9), and another harbors eGFP fused to the C terminus of ORF66 (rSVV.eGFP-ORF66). Both recombinant viruses efficiently expressed eGFP in cultured cells. Both recombinant SVV infections in culture were comparable to that of wild-type SVV (SVV.wt). Unlike SVV.wt, eGFP-tagged SVV did not replicate in rhesus cells in culture. Intratracheal (i.t.) or i.t. plus intravenous (i.v.) inoculation of rhesus macaques with these new eGFP-tagged viruses resulted in low viremia without varicella rash, although SVV DNA was abundant in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid at 10 days postinoculation (dpi). SVV DNA was also found in trigeminal ganglia of one monkey inoculated with rSVV.eGFP-ORF66. Intriguingly, a humoral response to both SVV and eGFP was observed. In addition, monkeys inoculated with the eGFP-expressing viruses were protected from superinfection with SVV.wt, suggesting that the monkeys had mounted an efficient immune response. Together, our results show that eGFP expression could be responsible for their reduced pathogenesis.IMPORTANCE SVV infection in nonhuman primates has served as an extremely useful animal model to study varicella-zoster virus (VZV) pathogenesis. eGFP-tagged viruses are a great tool to investigate their pathogenesis. We constructed and tested two new recombinant SVVs with eGFP inserted into two different locations in the SVV genome. Both recombinant SVVs showed robust replication in culture but reduced viremia compared to that with SVV.wt during primary infection in rhesus macaques. Our results indicate that conclusions on eGFP-tagged viruses based on in vitro results should be handled with care, since eGFP expression could result in attenuation of the virus.
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9
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Arnold N, Messaoudi I. Simian varicella virus causes robust transcriptional changes in T cells that support viral replication. Virus Res 2017; 238:226-235. [PMID: 28698046 PMCID: PMC7114558 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2017.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
T cells play a major role in varicella viruses dissemination to ganglia and skin. SVV infection of T cells increases the expression of cell cycle genes. SVV infection downregulates genes important for antigen presentation in T cells. SVV T cell infection disrupts expression of genes vital for metabolism and immunity.
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella (chickenpox) during acute infection. Several studies have shown that T cells are early and preferential targets of VZV infection that play a critical role in disseminating VZV in to the skin and ganglia. However, the transcriptional changes that occur in VZV-infected T cells remain unclear due to limited access to clinical samples and robust translational animal models. In this study, we used a nonhuman primate model of VZV infection where rhesus macaques are infected with the closely related Simian Varicella Virus (SVV) to provide novel insights into VZV-T cell interactions. RNA sequencing of bronchial alveolar lavage-resident T cells isolated from infected rhesus macaques show that SVV infection alters expression of genes important for regulation of gene expression, cell cycle progression, metabolism, and antiviral immunity. These data provide insight into cellular processes that may support viral replication, facilitate SVV dissemination, and evade host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Arnold
- Graduate Program in Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.
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10
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Sadaoka T, Depledge DP, Rajbhandari L, Venkatesan A, Breuer J, Cohen JI. In vitro system using human neurons demonstrates that varicella-zoster vaccine virus is impaired for reactivation, but not latency. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E2403-12. [PMID: 27078099 PMCID: PMC4855584 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1522575113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) establishes latency in human sensory and cranial nerve ganglia during primary infection (varicella), and the virus can reactivate and cause zoster after primary infection. The mechanism of how the virus establishes and maintains latency and how it reactivates is poorly understood, largely due to the lack of robust models. We found that axonal infection of neurons derived from hESCs in a microfluidic device with cell-free parental Oka (POka) VZV resulted in latent infection with inability to detect several viral mRNAs by reverse transcriptase-quantitative PCR, no production of infectious virus, and maintenance of the viral DNA genome in endless configuration, consistent with an episome configuration. With deep sequencing, however, multiple viral mRNAs were detected. Treatment of the latently infected neurons with Ab to NGF resulted in production of infectious virus in about 25% of the latently infected cultures. Axonal infection of neurons with vaccine Oka (VOka) VZV resulted in a latent infection similar to infection with POka; however, in contrast to POka, VOka-infected neurons were markedly impaired for reactivation after treatment with Ab to NGF. In addition, viral transcription was markedly reduced in neurons latently infected with VOka compared with POka. Our in vitro system recapitulates both VZV latency and reactivation in vivo and may be used to study viral vaccines for their ability to establish latency and reactivate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiko Sadaoka
- Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Daniel P Depledge
- Division of Infection and Immunity, MRC Centre for Medical Molecular Virology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Labchan Rajbhandari
- Division of Neuroimmunology and Neuroinfectious Diseases, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Arun Venkatesan
- Division of Neuroimmunology and Neuroinfectious Diseases, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD 21287
| | - Judith Breuer
- Division of Infection and Immunity, MRC Centre for Medical Molecular Virology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffrey I Cohen
- Medical Virology Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892;
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Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a ubiquitous, exclusively human alphaherpesvirus. Primary infection usually results in varicella (chickenpox), after which VZV becomes latent in ganglionic neurons along the entire neuraxis. As VZV-specific cell-mediated immunity declines in elderly and immunocompromised individuals, VZV reactivates and causes herpes zoster (shingles), frequently complicated by postherpetic neuralgia. VZV reactivation also produces multiple serious neurological and ocular diseases, such as cranial nerve palsies, meningoencephalitis, myelopathy, and VZV vasculopathy, including giant cell arteritis, with or without associated rash. Herein, we review the clinical, laboratory, imaging, and pathological features of neurological complications of VZV reactivation as well as diagnostic tests to verify VZV infection of the nervous system. Updates on the physical state of VZV DNA and viral gene expression in latently infected ganglia, neuronal, and primate models to study varicella pathogenesis and immunity are presented along with innovations in the immunization of elderly individuals to prevent VZV reactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Don Gilden
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA; Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12800, USA
| | - Maria Nagel
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA
| | - Randall Cohrs
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA; Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12800, USA
| | - Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA
| | - Nicholas Baird
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA
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12
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Simian Varicella Virus Is Present in Macrophages, Dendritic Cells, and T Cells in Lymph Nodes of Rhesus Macaques after Experimental Reactivation. J Virol 2015; 89:9817-24. [PMID: 26178993 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01324-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Like varicella-zoster virus (VZV), simian varicella virus (SVV) reactivates to produce zoster. In the present study, 5 rhesus macaques were inoculated intrabronchially with SVV, and 5 months later, 4 monkeys were immunosuppressed; 1 monkey was not immunosuppressed but was subjected to the stress of transportation. In 4 monkeys, a zoster rash developed 7 to 12 weeks after immunosuppression, and a rash also developed in the monkey that was not immunosuppressed. Analysis at 24 to 48 h after zoster revealed SVV antigen in the lung alveolar wall, in ganglionic neurons and nonneuronal cells, and in skin and in lymph nodes. In skin, SVV was found primarily in sweat glands. In lymph nodes, the SVV antigen colocalized mostly with macrophages, dendritic cells, and, to a lesser extent, T cells. The presence of SVV in lymph nodes, as verified by quantitative PCR detection of SVV DNA, might reflect the sequestration of virus by macrophages and dendritic cells in lymph nodes or the presentation of viral antigens to T cells to initiate an immune response against SVV, or both. IMPORTANCE VZV causes varicella (chickenpox), becomes latent in ganglia, and reactivates to produce zoster and multiple other serious neurological disorders. SVV in nonhuman primates has proved to be a useful model in which the pathogenesis of the virus parallels the pathogenesis of VZV in humans. Here, we show that SVV antigens are present in sweat glands in skin and in macrophages and dendritic cells in lymph nodes after SVV reactivation in monkeys, raising the possibility that macrophages and dendritic cells in lymph nodes serve as antigen-presenting cells to activate T cell responses against SVV after reactivation.
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13
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Traina-Dorge V, Sanford R, James S, Doyle-Meyers LA, de Haro E, Wellish M, Gilden D, Mahalingam R. Robust pro-inflammatory and lesser anti-inflammatory immune responses during primary simian varicella virus infection and reactivation in rhesus macaques. J Neurovirol 2014; 20:526-30. [PMID: 25139181 PMCID: PMC4394654 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0274-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of non-human primates models human varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection. Assessment of cell signaling immune responses in monkeys after primary SVV infection, after immunosuppression and during reactivation revealed strong pro-inflammatory responses and lesser anti-inflammatory components during varicella and reactivation. Pro-inflammatory mediators elevated during varicella included interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1), interferon inducible T-cell α chemoattractant protein (I-TAC), interferon processing protein (IP-10), and anti-inflammatory interleukin-1 Receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra). After immunosuppression and at reactivation, levels of pro-inflammatory mediators MCP-1, eotaxin, IL-6, IL-8, MIF, RANTES (regulated-on-activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted), and HGF (hepatocyte growth factor) were elevated, as was the anti-inflammatory mediator IL-1Ra. Characterization of cytokine, chemokine and growth factor responses during different stages of varicella virus infection will facilitate immunotherapeutic and vaccine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicki Traina-Dorge
- Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, 18703 Three Rivers Road, Covington, LA, 70433, USA,
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Zerboni L, Sen N, Oliver SL, Arvin AM. Molecular mechanisms of varicella zoster virus pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2014; 12:197-210. [PMID: 24509782 PMCID: PMC4066823 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 276] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is the causative agent of varicella (chickenpox) and zoster (shingles). Investigating VZV pathogenesis is challenging as VZV is a human-specific virus and infection does not occur, or is highly restricted, in other species. However, the use of human tissue xenografts in mice with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) enables the analysis of VZV infection in differentiated human cells in their typical tissue microenvironment. Xenografts of human skin, dorsal root ganglia or foetal thymus that contains T cells can be infected with mutant viruses or in the presence of inhibitors of viral or cellular functions to assess the molecular mechanisms of VZV-host interactions. In this Review, we discuss how these models have improved our understanding of VZV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh Zerboni
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Nandini Sen
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Stefan L Oliver
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Ann M Arvin
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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Breuer J, Pacou M, Gauthier A, Brown MM. Herpes zoster as a risk factor for stroke and TIA: a retrospective cohort study in the UK. Neurology 2014; 82:206-12. [PMID: 24384645 PMCID: PMC3902756 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000000038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: Stroke and TIA are recognized complications of acute herpes zoster (HZ). In this study, we evaluated HZ as a risk factor for cerebrovascular disease (stroke and TIA) and myocardial infarction (MI) in a UK population cohort. Methods: A retrospective cohort of 106,601 HZ cases and 213,202 controls matched for age, sex, and general practice was identified from the THIN (The Health Improvement Network) general practice database. Cox proportional hazard models were used to examine the risks of stroke, TIA, and MI in cases and controls, adjusted for vascular risk factors, including body mass index >30 kg/m2, smoking, cholesterol >6.2 mmol/L, hypertension, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, atrial fibrillation, intermittent arterial claudication, carotid stenosis, and valvular heart disease, up to 24 years (median 6.3 years) after HZ occurrence. Results: Risk factors for vascular disease were significantly increased in cases of HZ compared with controls. Adjusted hazard ratios (AHRs) for TIA and MI but not stroke were increased in all patients with HZ (AHR [95% confidence interval]: 1.15 [1.09–1.21] and 1.10 [1.05–1.16], respectively). However, stroke, TIA, and MI were increased in cases whose HZ occurred when they were younger than 40 years (AHR [95% confidence interval]: 1.74 [1.13–2.66], 2.42 [1.34–4.36], 1.49 [1.04–2.15], respectively). Subjects younger than 40 years were significantly less likely to be asked about vascular risk factors than were older patients (p < 0.001). Conclusion: HZ is an independent risk factor for vascular disease in the UK population, particularly for stroke, TIA, and MI in subjects affected before the age of 40 years. In older subjects, better ascertainment of vascular risk factors and earlier intervention may explain the reduction in risk of stroke after the occurrence of HZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Breuer
- From the Division of Infection and Immunity (J.B.), and Institute of Neurology (M.M.B.), University College London; and Amaris (M.P., A.G.)
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T-Cell tropism of simian varicella virus during primary infection. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003368. [PMID: 23675304 PMCID: PMC3649965 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella, establishes a life-long latent infection of ganglia and reactivates to cause herpes zoster. The cell types that transport VZV from the respiratory tract to skin and ganglia during primary infection are unknown. Clinical, pathological, virological and immunological features of simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of non-human primates parallel those of primary VZV infection in humans. To identify the host cell types involved in virus dissemination and pathology, we infected African green monkeys intratracheally with recombinant SVV expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (SVV-EGFP) and with wild-type SVV (SVV-wt) as a control. The SVV-infected cell types and virus kinetics were determined by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry, and virus culture and SVV-specific real-time PCR, respectively. All monkeys developed fever and skin rash. Except for pneumonitis, pathology produced by SVV-EGFP was less compared to SVV-wt. In lungs, SVV infected alveolar myeloid cells and T-cells. During viremia the virus preferentially infected memory T-cells, initially central memory T-cells and subsequently effector memory T-cells. In early non-vesicular stages of varicella, SVV was seen mainly in perivascular skin infiltrates composed of macrophages, dendritic cells, dendrocytes and memory T-cells, implicating hematogenous spread. In ganglia, SVV was found primarily in neurons and occasionally in memory T-cells adjacent to neurons. In conclusion, the data suggest the role of memory T-cells in disseminating SVV to its target organs during primary infection of its natural and immunocompetent host. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella, establishes life-long latent infection in ganglia and reactivates later in life to cause zoster. VZV is acquired via the respiratory route, with skin rash occurring up to 3 weeks after exposure. The cell types that transport VZV to skin and ganglia during primary infection are unknown. Simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of non-human primates mimics clinical, pathological and immunological features of human VZV infection. African green monkeys were infected with recombinant SVV expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (SVV-EGFP) or wild-type SVV (SVV-wt) as a control. By visualizing SVV-EGFP−infected cells in the living animal and in tissue samples, we identified the virus-infected cell types in blood, lungs, skin and ganglia during primary infection. Our data demonstrate that during viremia, SVV predominantly infects peripheral blood memory T-cells. Detection of SVV-infected memory T-cells in lungs, in early varicella skin lesions and also, albeit to a lesser extent, in ganglia suggests a role for memory T-cells in transporting virus to these organs. Our study provides novel insights into the cell types involved in virus dissemination and the overall pathology of varicella in a non-human primate model.
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Ouwendijk WJD, Abendroth A, Traina-Dorge V, Getu S, Steain M, Wellish M, Andeweg AC, Osterhaus ADME, Gilden D, Verjans GMGM, Mahalingam R. T-cell infiltration correlates with CXCL10 expression in ganglia of cynomolgus macaques with reactivated simian varicella virus. J Virol 2013; 87:2979-82. [PMID: 23269790 PMCID: PMC3571377 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03181-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ganglia of monkeys with reactivated simian varicella virus (SVV) contained more CD8 than CD4 T cells around neurons. The abundance of CD8 T cells was greater less than 2 months after reactivation than that at later times and correlated with that of CXCL10 RNA but not with those of SVV protein or open reading frame 61 (ORF61) antisense RNA. CXCL10 RNA colocalized with T-cell clusters. After SVV reactivation, transient T-cell infiltration, possibly mediated by CXCL10, parallels varicella zoster virus (VZV) reactivation in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Sydney, Australia
| | - Vicki Traina-Dorge
- Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, Louisiana, USA
| | - Sarah Getu
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Megan Steain
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Arno C. Andeweg
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Don Gilden
- Department of Neurology
- Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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18
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Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a highly successful human pathogen, which is never completely eliminated from the host. VZV causes two clinically distinct diseases, varicella (chickenpox) during primary infection and herpes zoster (shingles) following virus reactivation from latency. Throughout its lifecycle the virus encounters the innate and adaptive immune response, and in order to prevent eradication it has developed many mechanisms to evade and overcome these responses. This review will provide a comprehensive overview of the host immune response to VZV infection, during the multiple stages of the virus lifecycle and at key sites of VZV infection. We will also briefly describe some of the strategies employed by the virus to overcome the host immune response and the ongoing challenges in further elucidating the interplay between VZV and the host immune response in an attempt to lead to better therapies and a ‘second generation’ vaccine for VZV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Steain
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, NSW, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, NSW, Australia
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Gilden D, Mahalingam R, Nagel MA, Pugazhenthi S, Cohrs RJ. Review: The neurobiology of varicella zoster virus infection. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2011; 37:441-63. [PMID: 21342215 PMCID: PMC3176736 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2011.01167.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a neurotropic herpesvirus that infects nearly all humans. Primary infection usually causes chickenpox (varicella), after which virus becomes latent in cranial nerve ganglia, dorsal root ganglia and autonomic ganglia along the entire neuraxis. Although VZV cannot be isolated from human ganglia, nucleic acid hybridization and, later, polymerase chain reaction proved that VZV is latent in ganglia. Declining VZV-specific host immunity decades after primary infection allows virus to reactivate spontaneously, resulting in shingles (zoster) characterized by pain and rash restricted to one to three dermatomes. Multiple other serious neurological and ocular disorders also result from VZV reactivation. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge of the clinical and pathological complications of neurological and ocular disease produced by VZV reactivation, molecular aspects of VZV latency, VZV virology and VZV-specific immunity, the role of apoptosis in VZV-induced cell death and the development of an animal model provided by simian varicella virus infection of monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Gilden
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, USA.
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Mahalingam R, Traina-Dorge V, Wellish M, Deharo E, Singletary ML, Ribka EP, Sanford R, Gilden D. Latent simian varicella virus reactivates in monkeys treated with tacrolimus with or without exposure to irradiation. J Neurovirol 2011; 16:342-54. [PMID: 20822371 DOI: 10.3109/13550284.2010.513031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of primates resembles human varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection. After primary infection, SVV becomes latent in ganglia and reactivates after immunosuppression or social and environmental stress. Herein, natural SVV infection was established in 5 cynomolgus macaques (cynos) and 10 African green (AG) monkeys. Four cynos were treated with the immunosuppressant tacrolimus (80 to 300 μg/kg/day) for 4 months and 1 was untreated (group 1). Four AG monkeys were exposed to a single dose (200 cGy) of x-irradiation (group 2), and 4 other AG monkeys were irradiated and treated with tacrolimus for 4 months (group 3); the remaining 2 AG monkeys were untreated. Zoster rash developed 1 to 2 weeks after tacrolimus treatment in 3 of 4 monkeys in group 1, 6 weeks after irradiation in 1 of 4 monkeys in group 2, and 1 to 2 weeks after irradiation in all 4 monkeys in group 3. All monkeys were euthanized 1 to 4 months after immunosuppression. SVV antigens were detected immunohistochemically in skin biopsies as well as in lungs of most monkeys. Low copy number SVV DNA was detected in ganglia from all three groups of monkeys, including controls. RNA specific for SVV ORFs 61, 63, and 9 was detected in ganglia from one immunosuppressed monkey in group 1. SVV antigens were detected in multiple ganglia from all immunosuppressed monkeys in every group, but not in controls. These results indicate that tacrolimus treatment produced reactivation in more monkeys than irradiation and tacrolimus and irradiation increased the frequency of SVV reactivation as compared to either treatment alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA.
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Effect of time delay after necropsy on analysis of simian varicella-zoster virus expression in latently infected ganglia of rhesus macaques. J Virol 2010; 84:12454-7. [PMID: 20861271 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01792-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies of varicella-zoster virus gene expression during latency require the acquisition of human ganglia at autopsy. Concerns have been raised that the virus might reactivate immediately after death. Because features of varicella-zoster virus latency are similar in primate and human ganglia, we examined virus gene expression in tissues either processed immediately or kept at 4°C for 30 h before necropsy of two monkeys inoculated with simian varicella-zoster virus and euthanized 117 days later. Virus transcription and the detection of open reading frame (ORF) 63 protein in the cytoplasm of neurons were comparable. Thus, a 30-h delay after death did not affect varicella-zoster virus expression in latently infected ganglia.
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