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Spruit CM, Palme DI, Li T, Ríos Carrasco M, Gabarroca García A, Sweet IR, Kuryshko M, Maliepaard JCL, Reiding KR, Scheibner D, Boons GJ, Abdelwhab EM, de Vries RP. Complex N-glycans are important for interspecies transmission of H7 influenza A viruses. J Virol 2024; 98:e0194123. [PMID: 38470143 PMCID: PMC11019957 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01941-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) can overcome species barriers by adaptation of the receptor-binding site of the hemagglutinin (HA). To initiate infection, HAs bind to glycan receptors with terminal sialic acids, which are either N-acetylneuraminic acid (NeuAc) or N-glycolylneuraminic acid (NeuGc); the latter is mainly found in horses and pigs but not in birds and humans. We investigated the influence of previously identified equine NeuGc-adapting mutations (S128T, I130V, A135E, T189A, and K193R) in avian H7 IAVs in vitro and in vivo. We observed that these mutations negatively affected viral replication in chicken cells but not in duck cells and positively affected replication in horse cells. In vivo, the mutations reduced virus virulence and mortality in chickens. Ducks excreted high viral loads longer than chickens, although they appeared clinically healthy. To elucidate why these viruses infected chickens and ducks despite the absence of NeuGc, we re-evaluated the receptor binding of H7 HAs using glycan microarray and flow cytometry studies. This re-evaluation demonstrated that mutated avian H7 HAs also bound to α2,3-linked NeuAc and sialyl-LewisX, which have an additional fucose moiety in their terminal epitope, explaining why infection of ducks and chickens was possible. Interestingly, the α2,3-linked NeuAc and sialyl-LewisX epitopes were only bound when presented on tri-antennary N-glycans, emphasizing the importance of investigating the fine receptor specificities of IAVs. In conclusion, the binding of NeuGc-adapted H7 IAV to tri-antennary N-glycans enables viral replication and shedding by chickens and ducks, potentially facilitating interspecies transmission of equine-adapted H7 IAVs.IMPORTANCEInfluenza A viruses (IAVs) cause millions of deaths and illnesses in birds and mammals each year. The viral surface protein hemagglutinin initiates infection by binding to host cell terminal sialic acids. Hemagglutinin adaptations affect the binding affinity to these sialic acids and the potential host species targeted. While avian and human IAVs tend to bind to N-acetylneuraminic acid (sialic acid), equine H7 viruses prefer binding to N-glycolylneuraminic acid (NeuGc). To better understand the function of NeuGc-specific adaptations in hemagglutinin and to elucidate interspecies transmission potential NeuGc-adapted viruses, we evaluated the effects of NeuGc-specific mutations in avian H7 viruses in chickens and ducks, important economic hosts and reservoir birds, respectively. We also examined the impact on viral replication and found a binding affinity to tri-antennary N-glycans containing different terminal epitopes. These findings are significant as they contribute to the understanding of the role of receptor binding in avian influenza infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy M. Spruit
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Diana I. Palme
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Tiehai Li
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - María Ríos Carrasco
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Alba Gabarroca García
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Igor R. Sweet
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Maryna Kuryshko
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Joshua C. L. Maliepaard
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Karli R. Reiding
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - David Scheibner
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Geert-Jan Boons
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Elsayed M. Abdelwhab
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Robert P. de Vries
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Ricci I, Tofani S, Lelli D, Vincifori G, Rosone F, Carvelli A, Diaconu EL, La Rocca D, Manna G, Sabatini S, Costantini D, Conti R, Pacchiarotti G, Scicluna MT. First Reported Circulation of Equine Influenza H3N8 Florida Clade 1 Virus in Horses in Italy. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:598. [PMID: 38396566 PMCID: PMC10886299 DOI: 10.3390/ani14040598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine influenza (EI) is a highly contagious viral disease of equids characterized by pyrexia and respiratory signs. Like other influenza A viruses, antigenic drift or shift could lead to a vaccine-induced immunity breakdown if vaccine strains are not updated. The aim of this study was to genetically characterize EIV strains circulating in Italy, detected in PCR-positive samples collected from suspected cases, especially in the absence of formal active surveillance. METHODS Between February and April 2019, blood samples and nasal swabs collected from each of the 20 symptomatic horses from North and Central Italy were submitted to the National Reference Centre for Equine Diseases in Italy to confirm preliminary analysis performed by other laboratories. RESULTS None of the sera analysed using haemagglutination inhibition and single radial haemolysis presented a predominant serological reactivity pattern for any antigen employed. All nasal swabs were positive with IAV RRT-PCR. Only one strain, isolated in an embryonated chicken egg from a sample collected from a horse of a stable located in Brescia, Lombardy, was identified as H3N8 Florida lineage clade 1 (FC1). In the constructed phylogenetic trees, this strain is located within the FC1, together with the virus isolated in France in 2018 (MK501761). CONCLUSIONS This study reports the first detection of H3N8 FC1 in Italy, highlighting the importance of monitoring circulating EIV strains to verify the vaccine composition appropriateness for maximum efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida Ricci
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Silvia Tofani
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Davide Lelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna “Bruno Ubertini”, Via Bianchi, 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy;
| | - Giacomo Vincifori
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale”, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Francesca Rosone
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Andrea Carvelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Elena Lavinia Diaconu
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Davide La Rocca
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Giuseppe Manna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Samanta Sabatini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Donatella Costantini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Raffaella Conti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Giulia Pacchiarotti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Maria Teresa Scicluna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
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Whitlock F, Murcia PR, Newton JR. A Review on Equine Influenza from a Human Influenza Perspective. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061312. [PMID: 35746783 PMCID: PMC9229935 DOI: 10.3390/v14061312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) have a main natural reservoir in wild birds. IAVs are highly contagious, continually evolve, and have a wide host range that includes various mammalian species including horses, pigs, and humans. Furthering our understanding of host-pathogen interactions and cross-species transmissions is therefore essential. This review focuses on what is known regarding equine influenza virus (EIV) virology, pathogenesis, immune responses, clinical aspects, epidemiology (including factors contributing to local, national, and international transmission), surveillance, and preventive measures such as vaccines. We compare EIV and human influenza viruses and discuss parallels that can be drawn between them. We highlight differences in evolutionary rates between EIV and human IAVs, their impact on antigenic drift, and vaccine strain updates. We also describe the approaches used for the control of equine influenza (EI), which originated from those used in the human field, including surveillance networks and virological analysis methods. Finally, as vaccination in both species remains the cornerstone of disease mitigation, vaccine technologies and vaccination strategies against influenza in horses and humans are compared and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fleur Whitlock
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Pablo R. Murcia
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
| | - J. Richard Newton
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
- Correspondence:
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Caceres CJ, Seibert B, Cargnin Faccin F, Cardenas-Garcia S, Rajao DS, Perez DR. Influenza antivirals and animal models. FEBS Open Bio 2022; 12:1142-1165. [PMID: 35451200 PMCID: PMC9157400 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A and B viruses are among the most prominent human respiratory pathogens. About 3-5 million severe cases of influenza are associated with 300 000-650 000 deaths per year globally. Antivirals effective at reducing morbidity and mortality are part of the first line of defense against influenza. FDA-approved antiviral drugs currently include adamantanes (rimantadine and amantadine), neuraminidase inhibitors (NAI; peramivir, zanamivir, and oseltamivir), and the PA endonuclease inhibitor (baloxavir). Mutations associated with antiviral resistance are common and highlight the need for further improvement and development of novel anti-influenza drugs. A summary is provided for the current knowledge of the approved influenza antivirals and antivirals strategies under evaluation in clinical trials. Preclinical evaluations of novel compounds effective against influenza in different animal models are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Joaquin Caceres
- Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Brittany Seibert
- Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Flavio Cargnin Faccin
- Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Stivalis Cardenas-Garcia
- Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Daniela S Rajao
- Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Daniel R Perez
- Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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5
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Li X, Liu J, Qiu Z, Liao Q, Peng Y, Chen Y, Shu Y. Host-Adaptive Signatures of H3N2 Influenza Virus in Canine. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:740472. [PMID: 34746280 PMCID: PMC8564371 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.740472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Wild aquatic birds are the primary natural reservoir of influenza A viruses (IAVs), although a small number of viruses can spill over to mammals and circulate. The focus of IAV infection in mammals was largely limited to humans and swine variants, until the emergence of H3N2 canine influenza viruses (CIVs), which provides new perspective for interspecies transmission of the virus. In this study, we captured 54 canine-adaptive signatures in H3N2 CIVs through entropy computation, which were largely concentrated in the interaction region of polymerase proteins on ribonucleoprotein complex. The receiver operating characteristic curves of these sites showed >95% accuracy in distinguishing between the hosts. Nine of the 54 canine-adaptive signatures were shared in avian–human/equine or equine–canine (PB2-82; PB1-361; PA-277; HA-81, 111, 172, 196, 222, 489), suggesting their involvement in canine adaptation. Furthermore, we found that IAVs can establish persistent transmission in lower mammals with greater ease compared to higher mammals, and 25 common adaptation signatures of H3 IAVs were observed in diverse avian–mammals comparison. There were few human-like residues in H3N2 CIVs, which suggested a low risk of human infection. Our study highlights the necessity of identifying and monitoring the emerging adaptive mutations in companion animals by enhanced surveillance and provides a basis for mammal adaptation of avian influenza viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyun Li
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jia Liu
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Zengzhao Qiu
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Qijun Liao
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yani Peng
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yongkun Chen
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yuelong Shu
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
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Alnaeem A, Shawaf T, Ali AM, Hemida MG. Clinical observations and molecular detection of Type-A influenza virus in some of the family Equidae in eastern Saudi Arabia winter-2019. Vet Res Commun 2021; 45:423-430. [PMID: 34435308 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-021-09822-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In the current study, we are investigating the viral causes of some respiratory clinical signs in some animals belongs to the family Equidae in eastern Saudi Arabia (ESA) during winter- 2019. We observed the progression of severe respiratory clinical signs among some horses, donkeys, and ponies in the ESA. Animals showed rapid respiration, fever, nasal discharges (started as serous then changed into mucopurulent with the progression of the infection per some animals). We conducted a longitudinal study to monitor the progression of this outbreak. We conducted molecular surveillance for the influenza virus Type-A using real-time PCR and regular RT-PCR. We also conducted a serosurveillance of the virus in sera of the tested animals using the commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS The molecular detection of the Influenza virus type-A virus from nasal swabs of the affected animals using the real-time PCR results clearly showing that 35.1% of the tested horses, donkeys, and ponies were positives. Further confirmation was achieved by reporting the seroconversion of some of the affected animals. Several attempts were conducted to isolate the circulating influenza strains using the embryonated chicken eggs were unsuccessful. This was based on the absence of any amplicons in the harvested embryonated egg fluids using some oligonucleotides for the common influenza virus genes (HA, NA, M, and N). Meanwhile, ELISA results revealed the detection of the antibodies in sera of horses and donkeys 72.9%. Seroconversion was reported in many animals several weeks after the onset of the outbreak. Taken together all these pieces of evidence, we confirm an influenza virus type-A outbreak among the tested animals during winter 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelmohsen Alnaeem
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Saudi Arabia
| | - Turke Shawaf
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali M Ali
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Minia University, El-Minia, Egypt
| | - Maged Gomaa Hemida
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahasa, Saudi Arabia. .,Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr Elsheikh, Egypt.
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7
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Altan E, Hui A, Li Y, Pesavento P, Asín J, Crossley B, Deng X, Uzal FA, Delwart E. New Parvoviruses and Picornavirus in Tissues and Feces of Foals with Interstitial Pneumonia. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081612. [PMID: 34452477 PMCID: PMC8402702 DOI: 10.3390/v13081612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Six foals with interstitial pneumonia of undetermined etiology from Southern California were analyzed by viral metagenomics. Spleen, lung, and colon content samples obtained during necropsy from each animal were pooled, and nucleic acids from virus-like particles enriched for deep sequencing. The recently described equine copiparvovirus named eqcopivirus, as well as three previously uncharacterized viruses, were identified. The complete ORFs genomes of two closely related protoparvoviruses, and of a bocaparvovirus, plus the partial genome of a picornavirus were assembled. The parvoviruses were classified as members of new ungulate protoparvovirus and bocaparvovirus species in the Parvoviridae family. The picornavirus was classified as a new species in the Salivirus genus of the Picornaviridae family. Spleen, lung, and colon content samples from each foal were then tested for these viral genomes by nested PCR and RT-PCR. When present, parvoviruses were detected in both feces and spleen. The picornavirus, protoparvovirus, and eqcopivirus genomes were detected in the lungs of one animal each. Three foals were co-infected with the picornavirus and either a protoparvovirus, bocaparvovirus, or eqcopivirus. Two other foals were infected with a protoparvovirus only. No viral infection was detected in one animal. The complete ORFs of the first equine protoparvoviruses and bocaparvovirus, the partial ORF of the third equine picornavirus, and their detection in tissues of foals with interstitial pneumonia are described here. Testing the involvement of these viruses in fatal interstitial pneumonia or other equine diseases will require larger epidemiological and/or inoculation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eda Altan
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA; (E.A.); (A.H.); (Y.L.); (X.D.)
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA
| | - Alvin Hui
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA; (E.A.); (A.H.); (Y.L.); (X.D.)
| | - Yanpeng Li
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA; (E.A.); (A.H.); (Y.L.); (X.D.)
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA
| | - Patricia Pesavento
- Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (P.P.); (J.A.); (F.A.U.)
| | - Javier Asín
- Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (P.P.); (J.A.); (F.A.U.)
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
| | - Beate Crossley
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Xutao Deng
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA; (E.A.); (A.H.); (Y.L.); (X.D.)
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA
| | - Francisco A. Uzal
- Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (P.P.); (J.A.); (F.A.U.)
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
| | - Eric Delwart
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA; (E.A.); (A.H.); (Y.L.); (X.D.)
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA
- Correspondence:
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