Memory Self-Knowledge and Self-Efficacy in the Aged

Subjective memory measures: Metamemory questionnaires currently in use

Subjective memory evaluation is important for assessing memory abilities and complaints alongside objective measures. In research and clinical settings, questionnaires are used to examine perceived memory ability, memory complaints, and memory beliefs/knowledge. Although they provide a structured measure of self-reported memory, there is some debate as to whether subjective evaluation accurately reflects memory abilities. Specifically, the disconnect between subjective and objective memory measures remains a long-standing issue within the field. Thus, it is essential to evaluate the benefits and limitations of questionnaires that are currently in use. This review encompasses three categories of metamemory questionnaires: self-efficacy, complaints, and multidimensional questionnaires. Factors influencing self-evaluation of memory including knowledge and beliefs about memory, ability to evaluate memory, recent metamemory experiences, and affect are examined. The relationship between subjective and objective memory measures is explored, and considerations for future development and use of metamemory questionnaires are provided.

Factors perpetuating functional cognitive symptoms after mild traumatic brain injury

INTRODUCTION

Self-reported memory difficulties (forgetting familiar names, misplacing objects) often persist long after a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), despite normal neuropsychological test performance. This clinical presentation may be a manifestation of a functional cognitive disorder (FCD). Several mechanisms underlying FCD have been proposed, including metacognitive impairment, memory perfectionism, and misdirected attention, as well as depression or anxiety-related explanations. This study aims to explore these candidate perpetuating factors in mTBI, to advance our understanding of why memory symptoms frequently persist following mTBI.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study of 67 adults (n = 39 with mTBI mean = 25 months ago and n = 28 healthy controls). Participants completed standardized questionnaires (including the Functional Memory Disorder Inventory), a metacognitive task (to quantify discrepancies between their trial-by-trial accuracy and confidence), and a brief neuropsychological test battery. We assessed candidate mechanisms in two ways: (1) between-groups, comparing participants with mTBI to healthy controls, and (2) within-group, examining their associations with functional memory symptom severity (FMDI) in the mTBI group.

RESULTS

Participants with mTBI performed similarly to controls on objective measures of memory ability but reported experiencing much more frequent memory lapses in daily life. Contrary to expectations, metacognitive efficiency did not differentiate the mTBI and control groups and was not associated with functional memory symptoms. Memory perfectionism was strongly associated with greater functional memory symptoms among participants with mTBI but did not differ between groups when accounting for age. Depression and checking behaviors produced consistent results across between-groups and within-group analyses: these factors were greater in the mTBI group compared to the control group and were associated with greater functional memory symptoms within the mTBI group.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights promising (e.g., depression, checking behaviors) and unlikely (e.g., metacognitive impairment) mechanisms underlying functional memory symptoms after mTBI, to guide future research and treatment.

Development and validation of the multi-dimensional metamemory skills (MDMS) scale for students in an Indian sample

Metamemory refers to an individual's awareness and understanding of their memory processes. It affects various aspects of learning, including the effective use of cognitive abilities, memory monitoring, and strategy development. The majority of valid scales for assessing students' metamemory are unidimensional. This study aims to develop and validate a multidimensional metamemory scale specifically for students. A 48-item multidimensional metamemory skills (MDMS) scale was developed with six dimensions: Factual memory knowledge, Memory monitoring, Memory self-efficacy, Memory strategies, Memory-related affect, and Memory-related behavior. The reliability of the scale was established using test-retest and split-half reliability, and internal consistency was determined using Cronbach's alpha. The scale was validated using exploratory factor analysis on 647 college students from India. The confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on 200 college students, which revealed a good fit for the data. Additionally, validity was established through face, content, concurrent and divergent validity. The scale's multidimensional nature enables a thorough assessment of students' metamemory skills. Additionally, the scale can be used in educational and research settings, assisting in planning interventions to improve metamemory skills in students.

Age-related decreases in global metacognition are independent of local metacognition and task performance

Metacognition refers to a capacity to reflect on and control other cognitive processes, commonly quantified as the extent to which confidence tracks objective performance. There is conflicting evidence about how "local" metacognition (monitoring of individual judgments) and "global" metacognition (estimates of self-performance) change across the lifespan. Additionally, the degree to which metacognition generalises across cognitive domains may itself change with age due to increased experience with one's own abilities. Using a gamified suite of performance-controlled memory and visual perception tasks, we measured local and global metacognition in an age-stratified sample of 304 healthy volunteers (18-83 years; N = 50 in each of 6 age groups). We calculated both local and global metrics of metacognition and quantified how and whether domain-generality changes with age. First-order task performance was stable across the age range. People's global self-performance estimates and local metacognitive bias decreased with age, indicating overall lower confidence in performance. In contrast, local metacognitive efficiency was spared in older age and remained correlated across the two cognitive domains. A stability of local metacognition indicates distinct mechanisms contributing to local and global metacognition. Our study reveals how local and global metacognition change across the lifespan and provide a benchmark against which disease-related changes in metacognition can be compared.

The Power of Perception: Beliefs About Memory Ability Uniquely Contribute to Memory Performance and Quality of Life in Adults Aging with Traumatic Brain Injury

OBJECTIVE

Personal beliefs about memory ability, which comprise memory self-efficacy (MSE), can influence memory performance in healthy older adults. Self-efficacy theory also predicts that MSE biases self-perceptions of functioning more globally, potentially impacting daily activity beyond cognitive performance. People with traumatic brain injury (PwTBI) frequently report debilitating memory problems long after acute recovery, but little is known about how MSE affects health outcomes in this population. We examined demographic and clinical correlates of MSE, as well as its relationship to memory test performance and health-related quality of life (QOL), in older adults with chronic moderate-to-severe TBI (msTBI).

METHOD

One hundred fourteen adults, aged 50+ and at least 1 year post-msTBI, underwent neuropsychological testing to assess their memory functioning. Participants also self-reported levels of psychological distress, MSE (Cognitive Confidence subscale of the Metacognitions Questionnaire), and health-related QOL (Quality of Life after Brain Injury questionnaire).

RESULTS

Demographic and injury-related predictors showed weak correlations with MSE. Although the relationship between MSE and general psychological distress was robust, only the former significantly predicted memory performance. Bivariate analyses revealed significant relationships between MSE and five out of the six QOL domains assessed. Multivariate linear regression revealed a significant impact of MSE on overall QOL independent of demographic and clinical variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support a unique role for MSE in both the objective cognitive performance and subjective health of PwTBI. Increased focus on self-perceptions of ability and their impact on measured outcomes is an important step towards personalized rehabilitation for adults with chronic msTBI.

OUP accepted manuscript

OBJECTIVE

The etiology of persistent memory complaints after concussion is poorly understood. Memory perfectionism (highly valuing memory ability and intolerance of minor memory lapses) may help explain why some people report persistent subjective memory problems in the absence of corresponding objective memory impairment. This study investigated the relationship between memory perfectionism and persistent memory complaints after concussion.

METHODS

Secondary analysis of baseline data from a randomized controlled trial. Adults (N = 77; 61% women) with persistent symptoms following concussion were recruited from outpatient specialty clinics. Participants completed the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognition Battery, Test of Memory Malingering-Trial 1, and questionnaires measuring memory perfectionism (Metamemory in Adulthood-Achievement subscale), forgetfulness and other postconcussion symptoms (Rivermead Postconcussion Symptoms Questionnaire; RPQ), and depression (Patient Health Questionnaire-2) at M = 17.8 weeks postinjury. Patients with versus without severe memory complaints (based on the RPQ) were compared.

RESULTS

Memory perfectionism was associated cross-sectionally with severe memory complaint, after controlling for objective memory ability, overall cognitive ability, and depression (95% confidence interval for odds ratio = 1.11-1.40). Sensitivity analyses showed that this relationship did not depend on use of specific objective memory tests nor on inclusion of participants who failed performance validity testing. In a control comparison to test the specificity of identified relationships, memory perfectionism was not associated with severe fatigue (95% confidence interval for odds ratio = 0.91-1.07).

CONCLUSIONS

Memory perfectionism may be a risk factor for persistent memory symptoms after concussion, with potential relevance to the spectrum of functional cognitive disorders more broadly.

I remember it like it was yesterday: Age-related differences in the subjective experience of remembering

It has been frequently described that older adults subjectively report the vividness of their memories as being as high, or even higher, than young adults, despite poorer objective memory performance. Here, we review studies that examined age-related differences in the subjective experience of memory vividness. By examining vividness calibration and resolution, studies using different types of approaches converge to suggest that older adults overestimate the intensity of their vividness ratings relative to young adults, and that they rely on retrieved memory details to a lesser extent to judge vividness. We discuss potential mechanisms underlying these observations. Inflation of memory vividness with regard to the richness of memory content may stem from age-differences in vividness criterion or scale interpretation and psycho-social factors. The reduced reliance on episodic memory details in older adults may stem from age-related differences in how they monitor these details to make their vividness ratings. Considered together, these findings emphasize the importance of examining age-differences in memory vividness using different analytical methods and they provide valuable evidence that the subjective experience of remembering is more than the reactivation of memory content. In this vein, we recommend that future studies explore the links between memory vividness and other subjective memory scales (e.g., ratings of details or memory confidence) in healthy aging and/or other populations, as it could be used as a window to better characterize the cognitive processes that underpin the subjective assessment of the quality of recollected events.

Memory Training as a Method for Reducing the Misinformation Effect

The two experiments presented in this study investigate the impact of memory training on the misinformation effect. This effect is particularly important in the forensic context as exposing a witness to misinformation may adversely affect the content of their testimony. During the training, the participants were acquainted with seven (Experiment 1) or six (Experiment 2) types of memory errors. It was expected that knowledge of the unreliability of human memory would reduce the misinformation effect and therefore improve the quality of testimony. These hypotheses were confirmed in both experiments. The efficacy of both the complete and reduced training courses was not statistically different. Additionally, in Experiment 1 the effectiveness of warning against misinformation was replicated: respondents warned about misinformation were more resistant to it than those not warned. The tainted truth effect was also present: people warned against non-existent misinformation had lower correctness in the memory test than non-warned ones. Finally, immediate recall of the content of the original information had no impact on the misinformation effect.

Refining the metamemory in adulthood questionnaire: a 20-item version of change and capacity designed for research and clinical settings

Objective: Subjective memory concerns (SMCs) might be an early indicator of future cognitive decline and conversion to dementia. However, a rich history of mixed findings, moderating factors, and heterogenous methods preclude the usefulness of SMCs in both research and clinical settings. The present study aimed to review some of the factors that might cause mixed results and propose a revised version the Metamemory in Adulthood (MIA) Questionnaire that can be easily implemented to more consistently derive estimates of SMCs.Method: We used factor analysis and regression to investigate the utility of a revised 20-item version of the MIA Change and Capacity subscales.Results: Based on two samples of older adults (N = 382 and N = 221), the revised scale showed strong internal reliability and a two-factor structure. Regression analyses supported the incremental validity of the MIA-Revised Change scale in predicting performance on the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test.Conclusions: By establishing a revised version of a well-known and previously validated questionnaire to assess SMCs, research and clinics can better implement a psychometrically sound measure quickly and easily. Moreover, the revised Change and Capacity subscales provide sufficient divergence to be sensitive to different facets of SMCs in a community dwelling older adult sample.

Deciphering the relationship between objective and subjective aspects of recollection in healthy aging

Although healthy aging has been related to a decline in recollection as indexed by objective measures, the subjective experience of recollection sometimes remains stable. To date, however, these age-related differences have only been examined using aggregated data across trials. In the current study, we investigated the relationship between subjective and objective measures of recollection on a trial-by-trial basis to determine whether the magnitude of this relationship was similar in young and older adults. Young and older participants were presented with pictures that were associated with descriptive labels at encoding. At retrieval, they were cued with the labels and were asked to rate the vividness of their memory for the associated picture and to recall as many details of the picture as possible. On average, older adults assigned higher vividness ratings but recalled fewer episodic details than young adults. Mixed-effects modelling revealed that the relationship between subjective (vividness) and objective (number of recalled details) recollection across trials was stronger in young than in older participants. These findings provide evidence that older adults not only retrieve fewer episodic details but also rely on these details to a lesser extent than young adults for judging the subjective quality of their memories.

Categories, diversity, and relevance of memory strategies reported by community-dwelling seniors

BACKGROUND

Memory strategies help seniors remember information that is essential for the performance of their daily activities and contribute to their independence in the context of declining memory skills. This study aimed to analyze the categories, the diversity, and relevance of memory strategies known by seniors, and to identify individual characteristics that correlated with these variables.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 294 participants aged 60 and over who decided to take part in a cognitive vitality promotion program. An adapted version of the memory situation questionnaire (Troyer, 2001) was administered to identify the memory strategies that seniors would use in five daily life situations. A scoring grid, also adapted from the questionnaire's original version (Troyer, 2001), was used to quantify the relevance of the strategies that were reported by participants.

RESULTS

All participants mentioned at least once that they would use a strategy from the physical category of memory strategies. Out of a possible range of 26 strategies, participants answered an average of 6.14 (SD = 1.7) different answers across the five situations. Based on expert consensus, 67.7% of the mentioned memory strategies were relevant. Diversity and relevance were significantly higher when trying to remember appointments, things to bring or phone numbers (p ≤ 0.05). The level of education, cognitive skills, and participation in leisure activities were related to diversity and relevance of reported strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

Seniors know various and relevant memory strategies to perform daily activities. The advantages of integrating strategies that they already know in cognitive health promotion programs should be considered in further studies.

Adapting the Metamemory in Adulthood (MIA) Questionnaire for cross cultural application in South Africa

The Metamemory in Adulthood (MIA) Questionnaire was adapted for cross-cultural applications in South Africa. The sample consisted of 902 adults (males and females) in early adulthood, middle age and old age and from the following population groups: black, Coloured English-speaking, Indian, Afrikaans-speaking and English-speaking whites. An eight-factor structure was obtained in comparison with the seven factors reported from American and Canadian samples. The Strategy Use factor split into Mental Memory Strategies and External Memory Aids. The adapted MIA is shorter than the original (89 items, compared to the original 108) but the reliabilities of the subscales are still good.

The Manipulation and Measurement of Task-specific Memory Self-Efficacy in Younger and Older Adults

Task-specific memory self-efficacy (TSMSE) was experimentally manipulated through provision of information about task difficulty, to determine its effect on free recall for 56 older (age 63-86) and 56 younger (age 16-25) adults. The implications of using prediction-based measures of TSMSE were addressed. After completing one recall trial of a list of 20 words, half the participants were told a second list comprised more difficult words; the others were told the second list would be similar to the first they had received. Free recall and TSMSE were measured before and after this manipulation. The manipulation reduced TSMSE for participants expecting a harder list of words, but not differently for younger compared with older adults. Younger and older adults’ recall declined at the second recall trial, but there was no difference between those expecting a harder list and those expecting a similar list. Recall was predicted by domain-specific memory self-efficacy as well as a traditional measure of TSMSE. The study demonstrated the malleability of memory self-efficacy, but called into question assertions about its salience as a mediator of older adults’ poorer memory performance.

Cognitive Self-efficacy in Relation to Personal Mastery and Goal Setting across the Life Span

This article is an integrative review of empirical studies of cognitive self-efficacy from childhood through old age. Issues of definition and measurement are addressed and the relation of self-efficacy to personal mastery is evaluated. Research on academic achievement in children and adolescents, complex decision-making in young adults, and memory and intellectual functioning in older adults supports a variety of theoretically driven hypotheses regarding the sources and effects of self-efficacy. Percepts of self-efficacy are based on a variety of sources of information, including personal mastery and perceived control beliefs. Self-efficacy has predictable effects on a variety of task engagement variables (e.g. persistence, effort, goal setting, strategy usage, chioce) that mediate the relationship between self-efficacy and performance. Generalisations regarding the applicability of self-efficacy to understanding cognitive development across the life span are discussed in terms of age-relevant domains and it is argued that a life span treatment of self-efficacy development is particularly compelling because both life span theory and self-efficacy theory emphasise domain specificity.

Understanding How Prior Knowledge Influences Memory in Older Adults

Older adults have a harder time than younger adults remembering specific events and experiences (episodic memory), whereas the ability to use one's general knowledge either improves or remains stable over the life span. Our focus is on the sometimes overlooked but critical possibility that this intact general knowledge can facilitate older adults' episodic memory performance. After reviewing literature that shows how prior knowledge can support remembering in aging as well as lead it astray, we consider open questions including whether prior knowledge is used only to fill in the gaps after a memory failure and when older adults might need to be instructed to apply their prior knowledge. Overall, we situate our claims within theories of cognitive aging, arguing that prior knowledge is a key factor in understanding older adults' memory performance, with the potential to serve as a compensatory mechanism.

Correlates and moderators of change in subjective memory and memory performance: findings from the health and retirement study

Aging researchers have long been interested in understanding individuals' subjective perceptions of their own memory functioning. Previous research has shown that subjective memory ratings are partly based on memory performance but also reflect the influence of other factors, such as depressive symptoms. The aim of the present study was to examine (1) longitudinal associations between trajectories of subjective memory and memory performance, (2) variables that predict levels of and changes in subjective memory and memory performance, and (3) variables that moderate associations between these constructs. We applied a latent growth curve model to four occasions of data from 15,824 participants of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; mean age at baseline=64.27 years, SD=9.90; 58% women). Results revealed that latent changes in subjective memory were correlated with latent changes in memory performance (φ=0.49), indicating that participants who reported steeper declines of subjective memory indeed showed steeper declines of memory performance over time. Three major patterns of associations emerged with respect to predictors of subjective memory and subjective memory change. First, the level of memory performance showed stronger associations with age, gender, and education, whereas subjective memory was more strongly associated with subjective age and personality traits. For example, women performed better than men on the episodic memory test, but there were no gender differences in subjective memory. Also, older age was associated with steeper declines of memory performance but with less decline of subjective memory. Second, personality traits that predicted subjective memory intercepts did not predict subjective memory slopes. Third, the strength of associations between levels and slopes of subjective memory and memory performance varied as a function of gender, education, depressive symptoms, and personality traits. Conscientiousness moderated the relationship of the level of subjective memory to the level of memory performance, consistent with the hypothesis that persons high in conscientiousness more accurately monitor memory successes and failures. The results reinforce the importance of depressive symptoms as a predictor of subjective memory but also indicate that a broader perspective on the reasons why memory complaints have modest correlations with memory itself is needed.

An investigation into prospective memory in children with developmental dyslexia

Developmental dyslexia hinders reading and writing acquisition of around 5–10% of the children all over the world. However, little is known about role of prospective memory among dyslexics. Prospective memory is realization of delayed intention. Realization of delayed intention requires self initiated process. The present study explored the role of memory (prospective and retrospective memory), meta-memory and attention among dyslexic's children. One hundred and fifteen children (51 dyslexics and 64 normal controls) participated in the study. Prospective and retrospective memory questionnaire, everyday attention questionnaire and meta-memory were administered on children. Analysis of variance was used to analyses the data. All the main effects were significant. Some interactions were also found to be significant. Results suggest that dyslexic's performance on memory (prospective and retrospective memory) was worse than normal control. Meta-memory influences both dyslexics and normal control on prospective and retrospective memory. However, meta-memory affected dyslexics much more than normal control group. Similarly, significant differential effects were observed for simple, difficult and mixed attentional condition among between dyslexics and normal control. Dyslexic's performance was deteriorated as compared to normal control group. The findings of the study are discussed in the light of the existing literature.

Influence of negative stereotypes and beliefs on neuropsychological test performance in a traumatic brain injury population

The impact of stereotype threat and self-efficacy beliefs on neuropsychological test performance in a clinical traumatic brain injury (TBI) population was investigated. A total of 42 individuals with mild-to-moderate TBI and 42 (age-, gender-, educationally matched) healthy adults were recruited. The study consisted of a 2 (Type of injury: control, TBI) × 2 (Threat Condition: reduced threat, heightened threat) between-participants design. The purpose of the reduced threat condition was to reduce negative stereotyped beliefs regarding cognitive effects of TBI and to emphasize personal control over cognition. The heightened threat condition consisted of an opposing view. Main effects included greater anxiety, motivation, and dejection but reduced memory self-efficacy for head-injured-groups, compared to control groups. On neuropsychological testing, the TBI-heightened-threat-group displayed lower scores on Initial Encoding (initial recall) and trended toward displaying lower scores on Attention (working memory) compared to the TBI-reduced-threat-group. No effect was found for Delayed Recall measures. Memory self-efficacy mediated the relation between threat condition and neuropsychological performance, indicating a potential mechanism for the threat effect. The findings highlight the impact of stereotype threat and self-referent beliefs on neuropsychological test performance in a clinical TBI population.

Metamemory Beliefs and Episodic Memory in Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome

This study assessed metamemory and its role in actual episodic memory performance in 26 patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and 27 healthy controls. Metamemory knowledge and memory beliefs were assessed using the Metamemory Inventory in Adulthood. Episodic memory performance was investigated with the Remember/Know paradigm. Subjective sleepiness was evaluated. Patients underwent a polysomnographic assessment. In contrast to the control group's more stable memory beliefs, patients self-assessed their memory as declining across time, and felt more anxious about their memory. There was only a modest difference between patients' self-perceptions of their memory capacities and those of the control group, but patients' actual memory performance was strongly disturbed. While the later was significantly correlated with severity of obstructive sleep apnea, scores on the Metamemory Inventory in Adulthood scales were not correlated with physiological measures, subjective sleepiness, or episodic memory performance. Obstructive sleep apnea may affect prefrontal cortex functioning and hence the ability to assess one's own memory impairment.

Psychometric Properties of the French Version of the Multifactorial Memory Questionnaire for Adults and the Elderly

The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of a French version of the Multifactorial Memory Questionnaire (MMQ) (Troyer & Rich, 2002). The MMQ, which is suited to clinical and research purposes, evaluates subjective memory functioning (i.e., affect related to memory abilities, frequency of problems remembering in different situations, and strategy use in everyday life). The questionnaire was administered to 294 French adult or elderly subjects (46–94 years old). The results allowed us to conclude that the French version of this scale is psychometrically sound. Indeed, the scores proved to be highly reliable (Cronbach's α for the subscales ranged from 0.79 to 0.88) and correlated in the expected directions with measures of other constructs (correlation coefficients ranged from −0.34 to 0.39). Convergent validity evidence for MMQ scores was provided by their statistically significant positive correlations (from 0.56 to 0.73) with several dimensions of the Metamemory in Adulthood scale (MIA) (i.e., the anxiety, change, capacity and strategy dimensions). However, the three-factor model found in the original version was not validated here. An exploratory factor analysis revealed that a four-factor solution offered the most interpretable pattern for the factor scores. Two of the dimensions proposed by Troyer and Rich (2002) were replicated: ability and contentment. The third subscale (strategy) was divided into two factors: internal strategies and external strategies.

Rehearsal strategy use in Alzheimer's disease

Memory strategy usage and awareness of memory performance are both crucial for memory rehabilitation. We explored Alzheimer's patients' ability to apply and control learning strategies and also their ability to predict the effect of these strategies on subsequent performance. In a rehearsal condition, participants were explicitly asked to overtly rehearse words and were given as long as they liked at study. In a control condition, participants read the words passively at a fixed presentation rate. In all groups, recall was superior in the rehearsal condition than in the reading condition. Alzheimer's patients showed different strategy usage. Overall, people with Alzheimer's disease spend longer studying to-be-remembered words under unpaced conditions, but they do not use this time to rehearse to the same extent as controls. We hypothesize that this failure to rehearse could be based on the inability to use effortful executive mechanisms involved during study.

A study into the psychosocial determinants of perceived forgetfulness: implications for future interventions

Many healthy individuals perceive themselves as forgetful and are interested in interventions to decrease their worries and increase their memory functioning. Educational interventions can be more effective when determinants are targeted that are known to predict perceived forgetfulness. In the present study, first, a broad range of determinants was selected from the literature and from experiences in clinical settings and, second, the most important determinants among the selected ones were identified with multivariate regression analyses. The study had a cross-sectional design. A sample of 300 healthy participants aged over 54 years filled in a self-report questionnaire. Findings indicated that low memory self-efficacy, high memory-related anxiety, negative attitude and high subjective norm (e.g. anticipating negative evaluations by important others) were the most important correlates of perceived forgetfulness. It is argued that future interventions should focus on the specified determinants to improve programme effectiveness in reducing subjective memory complaints.

Memory self-efficacy predicts memory performance: results from a 6-year follow-up study

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between memory self-efficacy (MSE) and a 6-year follow-up assessment of memory functioning in a sample of Dutch older adults. MSE was assessed by a Dutch abridged version of the Metamemory in Adulthood questionnaire (MIA; R. A. Dixon, D. F. Hultsch, & C. Hertzog, 1988; C. Hertzog, D. F. Hultsch, & R. A. Dixon, 1989; R. W. H. M. Ponds & J. Jolles, 1996). The total MSE score predicted memory performance at 6 years, as measured by the Visual Verbal Learning Task (VVLT; N. Brand & J. Jolles, 1985). A separate analysis of the different MSE subscales indicated that the MIA Change score was the most salient domain-specific MSE predictor of subsequent memory performance after 6 years. An extreme groups analysis of the MIA Change score revealed a pattern of performance for those who perceived that their memory was worsening, performing less well on the 3 trials of the VVLT when these were readministered at the 6-year follow-up.

A pilot study examining older adults' beliefs related to medication adherence: the BERMA survey

OBJECTIVE

To establish a multifactorial measure of older adults' beliefs related to medication adherence.

METHODS

Ninety-two older adults (M = 71.42 years) were asked to provide medication and health-related information, memory strategies, and complete the Beliefs Related to Medications (BERMA) Survey.

RESULTS

The final version of the BERMA survey contains 53 questions with three scales. The overall reliability of the scale is excellent (Cronbach's alpha =.94), as is the reliability of the scales. Correlations show that better rated memory for medications was associated with higher reported adherence and fewer external memory strategies. Higher perceived ability to deal with health professionals was related to higher importance of medication adherence and greater perceived seriousness of one's medical condition. Finally, more positive attitudes about medications were associated with better self-rated health and fewer side effects.

DISCUSSION

The results indicate that the BERMA survey is a potentially useful research tool for understanding older adults' medication adherence.

Memory complaints, coping, and well-being in old age: a systemic approach

A study on memory complaints (as measured by selected subscales of the Metamemory in Adulthood Questionnaire) and its context was conducted on 179 older adults. A path analysis showed that memory complaints influence coping behavior through memory-related anxiety and perceived seriousness of complaints and that both memory complaints and coping influence well-being. Locus of control was found to be the most important antecedent variable in the model.

Metacognition and medication adherence: how do older adults remember?

Fifty-one older adults (M age = 75.9 years, SD = 6.9) reported their use of memory strategies for taking of medication using the Prospective Memory for Medication Questionnaire. Older adults used internal strategies more often when the domain was restricted to medication taking but used external strategies more often when queried across a variety of everyday situations. Surprisingly, the hypothesis that medical factors would be the primary determinants of older adults' reports of memory strategy use and perceived adherence was not supported. Metamemorial variables of non-domain-specific memory self-efficacy and memory anxiety in everyday life were significant predictors of strategy use and perceived adherence over and above variables related to the domain of health.