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Ferrer I. Historical review: The golden age of the Golgi method in human neuropathology. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2024; 83:375-395. [PMID: 38622902 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlae031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Golgi methods were used to study human neuropathology in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s of the last century. Although a relatively small number of laboratories applied these methods, their impact was crucial by increasing knowledge about: (1) the morphology, orientation, and localization of neurons in human cerebral and cerebellar malformations and ganglionic tumors, and (2) the presence of abnormal structures including large and thin spines (spine dysgenesis) in several disorders linked to mental retardation, focal enlargements of the axon hillock and dendrites (meganeurites) in neuronal storage diseases, growth cone-like appendages in Alzheimer disease, as well as abnormal structures in other dementias. Although there were initial concerns about their reliability, reduced dendritic branches and dendritic spines were identified as common alterations in mental retardation, dementia, and other pathological conditions. Similar observations in appropriate experimental models have supported many abnormalities that were first identified using Golgi methods in human material. Moreover, electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, fluorescent tracers, and combined methods have proven the accuracy of pioneering observations uniquely visualized as 3D images of fully stained individual neurons. Although Golgi methods had their golden age many years ago, these methods may still be useful complementary tools in human neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isidro Ferrer
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de LLobregat, Spain
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Negraes PD, Trujillo CA, Yu NK, Wu W, Yao H, Liang N, Lautz JD, Kwok E, McClatchy D, Diedrich J, de Bartolome SM, Truong J, Szeto R, Tran T, Herai RH, Smith SEP, Haddad GG, Yates JR, Muotri AR. Altered network and rescue of human neurons derived from individuals with early-onset genetic epilepsy. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:7047-7068. [PMID: 33888873 PMCID: PMC8531162 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01104-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Early-onset epileptic encephalopathies are severe disorders often associated with specific genetic mutations. In this context, the CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by early-onset seizures, intellectual delay, and motor dysfunction. Although crucial for proper brain development, the precise targets of CDKL5 and its relation to patients' symptoms are still unknown. Here, induced pluripotent stem cells derived from individuals deficient in CDKL5 protein were used to generate neural cells. Proteomic and phosphoproteomic approaches revealed disruption of several pathways, including microtubule-based processes and cytoskeleton organization. While CDD-derived neural progenitor cells have proliferation defects, neurons showed morphological alterations and compromised glutamatergic synaptogenesis. Moreover, the electrical activity of CDD cortical neurons revealed hyperexcitability during development, leading to an overly synchronized network. Many parameters of this hyperactive network were rescued by lead compounds selected from a human high-throughput drug screening platform. Our results enlighten cellular, molecular, and neural network mechanisms of genetic epilepsy that could ultimately promote novel therapeutic opportunities for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla D Negraes
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Cleber A Trujillo
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| | - Nam-Kyung Yu
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Wei Wu
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Hang Yao
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Nicholas Liang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan D Lautz
- Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Ellius Kwok
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Daniel McClatchy
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jolene Diedrich
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | | | - Justin Truong
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Ryan Szeto
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Timothy Tran
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Roberto H Herai
- Experimental Multiuser Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Stephen E P Smith
- Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Gabriel G Haddad
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - John R Yates
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Alysson R Muotri
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), La Jolla, CA, USA.
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Srivastava A, Hanig JP. Quantitative neurotoxicology: Potential role of artificial intelligence/deep learning approach. J Appl Toxicol 2020; 41:996-1006. [PMID: 33140470 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Neurotoxicity studies are important in the preclinical stages of drug development process, because exposure to certain compounds that may enter the brain across a permeable blood brain barrier damages neurons and other supporting cells such as astrocytes. This could, in turn, lead to various neurological disorders such as Parkinson's or Huntington's disease as well as various dementias. Toxicity assessment is often done by pathologists after these exposures by qualitatively or semiquantitatively grading the severity of neurotoxicity in histopathology slides. Quantification of the extent of neurotoxicity supports qualitative histopathological analysis and provides a better understanding of the global extent of brain damage. Stereological techniques such as the utilization of an optical fractionator provide an unbiased quantification of the neuronal damage; however, the process is time-consuming. Advent of whole slide imaging (WSI) introduced digital image analysis which made quantification of neurotoxicity automated, faster and with reduced bias, making statistical comparisons possible. Although automated to a certain level, simple digital image analysis requires manual efforts of experts which is time-consuming and limits analysis of large datasets. Digital image analysis coupled with a deep learning artificial intelligence model provides a good alternative solution to time-consuming stereological and simple digital analysis. Deep learning models could be trained to identify damaged or dead neurons in an automated fashion. This review has focused on and discusses studies demonstrating the role of deep learning in segmentation of brain regions, toxicity detection and quantification of degenerated neurons as well as the estimation of area/volume of degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anshul Srivastava
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Joseph P Hanig
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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De la Cruz Pino JG, Morales Mávil JE, Sánchez García ADC, Hernandez-Baltazar D. Optimized technique to extract and fix Olive ridley turtle hatchling retina for histological study. Acta Histochem 2020; 122:151592. [PMID: 32778246 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2020.151592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The efficient extraction and fixation of a tissue allows in preserving the cytoarchitecture, chemical composition and tissue organization, which is key in physiological and histopathological studies. The main goal of this study was to establish a microsurgery technique to obtain ocular tissue and provide an optimized immersion fixation protocol based on the 10 % formalin-intraocular injection on Olive ridley sea turtle hatchlings (Lepidochelys olivacea). To evaluate this optimized technique, a histological comparison between traditional immersion and intraocular/immersion protocols was done. The eyeball were processed into five protocols: Frozen eyes (Group 1), frozen eyes immersed in 10 % formalin (Group 2), fresh eyes immersed in 10 % formalin (Group 3), fresh eyes intraocularly injected with 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution (PBS) and then immersed in 10 % formalin (Group 4), and fresh eyes fixed by 10 % formalin-intraocular followed by 10 % formalin-immersion (Group 5). In comparison with all groups evaluated, the intraocular/immersion fixation protocol lead the conservation of eyeball shape, cell integrity and maintenance of the organization of the retina layers of sea turtle hatchlings. If this method will be the key in studying sea turtle, we suppose that this procedure, with minimal adjustments, could be useful in animals with similar eye anatomy.
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Zhu L, Wang L, Ju F, Khan A, Cheng X, Zhang S. Reversible recovery of neuronal structures depends on the degree of neuronal damage after global cerebral ischemia in mice. Exp Neurol 2017; 289:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/04/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Baloyannis SJ, Mavroudis I, Baloyannis IS, Costa VG. Mammillary Bodies in Alzheimer's Disease: A Golgi and Electron Microscope Study. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 2016; 31:247-56. [PMID: 26399484 PMCID: PMC10852917 DOI: 10.1177/1533317515602548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by irreversible memory decline, concerning no rarely spatial memory and orientation, alterations of the mood and personality, gradual loss of motor skills, and substantial loss of capacities obtained by previous long education. We attempted to describe the morphological findings of the mammillary bodies in early cases of AD. Samples were processed for electron microscopy and silver impregnation techniques. The nuclei of the mammillary bodies demonstrated a substantial decrease in the neuronal population and marked abbreviation of dendritic arbors. Decrease in spine density and morphological abnormalities of dendritic spines was also seen. Synaptic alterations were prominent. Alzheimer's pathology, such as deposits of amyloid-β peptide and neurofibrillary degeneration, was minimal. Electron microscopy revealed mitochondrial alterations and fragmentation of Golgi apparatus, associated frequently with synaptic pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stavros J Baloyannis
- Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Neuropathology and Electron Microscopy, Aristotelian University, Thessaloniki, Greece Laboratory of Neuropathology, Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease, Iraklion, Greece
| | - Ioannis Mavroudis
- Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Neuropathology and Electron Microscopy, Aristotelian University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ioannis S Baloyannis
- Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Neuropathology and Electron Microscopy, Aristotelian University, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Vassiliki G Costa
- Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Neuropathology and Electron Microscopy, Aristotelian University, Thessaloniki, Greece Laboratory of Neuropathology, Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease, Iraklion, Greece
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Abstract
Electron microscopy has enlarged the visual horizons of the morphological alterations in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Study of the mitochondria and Golgi apparatus in early cases of AD revealed the principal role that these important organelles play in the drama of pathogenic dialog of AD, substantially affecting energy production and supply, and protein trafficking in neurons and glia. In addition, study of the morphological alterations of the dendritic arbor, dendritic spines and neuronal synapses, which are associated with mitochondrial damage, may reasonably interpret the clinical phenomena of the irreversible decline of the mental faculties and an individual's personality changes. Electron microscopy also reveals the involvement of microvascular alterations in the etiopathogenic background of AD.
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Blackstad JS, Osen KK, Scharfman HE, Storm-Mathisen J, Blackstad TW, Leergaard TB. Observations on hippocampal mossy cells in mink (Neovison vison) with special reference to dendrites ascending to the granular and molecular layers. Hippocampus 2015; 26:229-45. [PMID: 26286893 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Detailed knowledge about the neural circuitry connecting the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex is necessary to understand how this system contributes to spatial navigation and episodic memory. The two principal cell types of the dentate gyrus, mossy cells and granule cells, are interconnected in a positive feedback loop, by which mossy cells can influence information passing from the entorhinal cortex via granule cells to hippocampal pyramidal cells. Mossy cells, like CA3 pyramidal cells, are characterized by thorny excrescences on their proximal dendrites, postsynaptic to giant terminals of granule cell axons. In addition to disynaptic input from the entorhinal cortex and perforant path via granule cells, mossy cells may also receive monosynaptic input from the perforant path via special dendrites ascending to the molecular layer. We here report qualitative and quantitative descriptions of Golgi-stained hippocampal mossy cells in mink, based on light microscopic observations and three-dimensional reconstructions. The main focus is on the location, branching pattern, and length of dendrites, particularly those ascending to the granular and molecular layers. In mink, the latter dendrites are more numerous than in rat, but fewer than in primates. They form on average 12% (and up to 29%) of the total dendritic length, and appear to cover the terminal fields of both the lateral and medial perforant paths. In further contrast to rat, the main mossy cell dendrites in mink branch more extensively with distal dendrites encroaching upon the CA3 field. The dendritic arbors extend both along and across the septotemporal axis of the dentate gyrus, not conforming to the lamellar pattern of the hippocampus. The findings suggest that the afferent input to the mossy cells becomes more complex in species closer to primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Sigurd Blackstad
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kirsten K Osen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Helen E Scharfman
- Center for Dementia Research, The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg New York and Departments of Psychiatry, Physiology & Neuroscience, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, New York
| | - Jon Storm-Mathisen
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Theodor W Blackstad
- Department of Anatomy, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Trygve B Leergaard
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Baloyannis SJ. Staining neurons with Golgi techniques in degenerative diseases of the brain. Neural Regen Res 2015; 10:693-5. [PMID: 26109934 PMCID: PMC4468751 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.156950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Stavros J Baloyannis
- Department of Neurology, Aristotelian University, Angelaki 5, Thessaloniki 546 21, Greece
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