Pre-mRNA Splicing Modulation by Antisense Oligonucleotides

Targeting pediatric solid tumors in the new era of RNA therapeutics

Despite substantial progress in pediatric cancer treatment, poor prognosis remained for patients with recurrent or metastatic disease, given the limitations of approved targeted treatments and immunotherapies. RNA therapeutics offer significant potential for addressing a broad spectrum of diseases, including cancer. Advances in manufacturing and delivery systems are paving the way for the rapid development of therapeutic RNAs for clinical applications. This review summarizes therapeutic RNA classifications and the mechanisms of action, highlighting their potential in manipulating major cancer-related pathways and biological effects. We also focus on the pre-clinical investigation of RNA molecules with efficient delivery systems for their therapeutic potential targeting pediatric solid tumors.

Out of the dark: the emerging roles of lncRNAs in pain

The dark genome, the nonprotein-coding part of the genome, is replete with long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). These functionally versatile transcripts, with specific temporal and spatial expression patterns, are critical gene regulators that play essential roles in health and disease. In recent years, FAAH-OUT was identified as the first lncRNA associated with an inherited human pain insensitivity disorder. Several other lncRNAs have also been studied for their contribution to chronic pain and genome-wide association studies are frequently identifying single nucleotide polymorphisms that map to lncRNAs. For a long time overlooked, lncRNAs are coming out of the dark and into the light as major players in human pain pathways and as potential targets for new RNA-based analgesic medicines.

The art of healing hearts: Mastering advanced RNA therapeutic techniques to shape the evolution of cardiovascular medicine in biomedical science

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death worldwide and are associated with increasing financial health burden that requires research into novel therapeutic approaches. Since the early 2000s, the availability of next-generation sequencing techniques such as microRNAs, circular RNAs, and long non-coding RNAs have been proven as potential therapeutic targets for treating various CVDs. Therapeutics based on RNAs have become a viable option for addressing the intricate molecular pathways that underlie the pathophysiology of CVDs. We provide an in-depth analysis of the state of RNA therapies in the context of CVDs, emphasizing various approaches that target the various stages of the basic dogma of molecular biology to effect temporary or long-term changes. In this review, we summarize recent methodologies used to screen for novel coding and non-coding RNA candidates with diagnostic and treatment possibilities in cardiovascular diseases. These methods include single-cell sequencing techniques, functional RNA screening, and next-generation sequencing.Lastly, we highlighted the potential of using oligonucleotide-based chemical products such as modified RNA and RNA mimics/inhibitors for the treatment of CVDs. Moreover, there will be an increasing number of potential RNA diagnostic and therapeutic for CVDs that will progress to expand for years to come.

Non-Coding RNA-Targeted Therapy: A State-of-the-Art Review

The use of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) as drug targets is being researched due to their discovery and their role in disease. Targeting ncRNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), is an attractive approach for treating various diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer. This seminar discusses the current status of ncRNAs as therapeutic targets in different pathological conditions. Regarding miRNA-based drugs, this approach has made significant progress in preclinical and clinical testing for cardiovascular diseases, where the limitations of conventional pharmacotherapy are evident. The challenges of miRNA-based drugs, including specificity, delivery, and tolerability, will be discussed. New approaches to improve their success will be explored. Furthermore, it extensively discusses the potential development of targeted therapies for cardiovascular disease. Finally, this document reports on the recent advances in identifying and characterizing microRNAs, manipulating them, and translating them into clinical applications. It also addresses the challenges and perspectives towards clinical application.

Current RNA strategies in treating cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) continues to impose a significant global health burden, necessitating the exploration of innovative treatment strategies. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)-based therapeutics have emerged as a promising avenue to address the complex molecular mechanisms underlying CVD pathogenesis. We present a comprehensive review of the current state of RNA therapeutics in the context of CVD, focusing on the diverse modalities that bring about transient or permanent modifications by targeting the different stages of the molecular biology central dogma. Considering the immense potential of RNA therapeutics, we have identified common gene targets that could serve as potential interventions for prevalent Mendelian CVD caused by single gene mutations, as well as acquired CVDs developed over time due to various factors. These gene targets offer opportunities to develop RNA-based treatments tailored to specific genetic and molecular pathways, presenting a novel and precise approach to address the complex pathogenesis of both types of cardiovascular conditions. Additionally, we discuss the challenges and opportunities associated with delivery strategies to achieve targeted delivery of RNA therapeutics to the cardiovascular system. This review highlights the immense potential of RNA-based interventions as a novel and precise approach to combat CVD, paving the way for future advancements in cardiovascular therapeutics.

RNA-Based Vaccines and Therapeutics Against Intracellular Pathogens

RNA-based vaccines have sparked a paradigm shift in the treatment and prevention of diseases by nucleic acid medicines. There has been a notable surge in the development of nucleic acid therapeutics and vaccines following the global approval of the two messenger RNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. This growth is fueled by the exploration of numerous RNA products in preclinical stages, offering several advantages over conventional methods, i.e., safety, efficacy, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. In this chapter, we provide an overview of various types of RNA and their mechanisms of action for stimulating immune responses and inducing therapeutic effects. Furthermore, this chapter delves into the varying delivery systems, particularly emphasizing the use of nanoparticles to deliver RNA. The choice of delivery system is an intricate process involved in developing nucleic acid medicines that significantly enhances their stability, biocompatibility, and site-specificity. Additionally, this chapter sheds light on the current landscape of clinical trials of RNA therapeutics and vaccines against intracellular pathogens.

Antisense Therapy for Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases, particularly Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, pose a significant global health challenge, with 1.6 million reported deaths in 2021, making it the most fatal disease caused by a single infectious agent. The rise of drug-resistant infectious diseases adds to the urgency of finding effective and safe intervention therapies. Antisense therapy uses antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) that are short, chemically modified, single-stranded deoxyribonucleotide molecules complementary to their mRNA target. Due to their designed target specificity and inhibition of a disease-causing gene at the mRNA level, antisense therapy has gained interest as a potential therapeutic approach. This type of therapy is currently utilized in numerous diseases, such as cancer and genetic disorders. Currently, there are limited but steadily increasing studies available that report on the use of ASOs as treatment for infectious diseases. This review explores the sustainability of FDA-approved and preclinically tested ASOs as a treatment for infectious diseases and the adaptability of ASOs for chemical modifications resulting in reduced side effects with improved drug delivery; thus, highlighting the potential therapeutic uses of ASOs for treating infectious diseases.

How does precursor RNA structure influence RNA processing and gene expression?

RNA is a fundamental biomolecule that has many purposes within cells. Due to its single-stranded and flexible nature, RNA naturally folds into complex and dynamic structures. Recent technological and computational advances have produced an explosion of RNA structural data. Many RNA structures have regulatory and functional properties. Studying the structure of nascent RNAs is particularly challenging due to their low abundance and long length, but their structures are important because they can influence RNA processing. Precursor RNA processing is a nexus of pathways that determines mature isoform composition and that controls gene expression. In this review, we examine what is known about human nascent RNA structure and the influence of RNA structure on processing of precursor RNAs. These known structures provide examples of how other nascent RNAs may be structured and show how novel RNA structures may influence RNA processing including splicing and polyadenylation. RNA structures can be targeted therapeutically to treat disease.

Oligo-Not Only for Silencing: Overlooked Potential for Multidirectional Action in Plants

Oligo technology is a low-cost and easy-to-implement method for direct manipulation of gene activity. The major advantage of this method is that gene expression can be changed without requiring stable transformation. Oligo technology is mainly used for animal cells. However, the use of oligos in plants seems to be even easier. The oligo effect could be similar to that induced by endogenous miRNAs. In general, the action of exogenously introduced nucleic acids (Oligo) can be divided into a direct interaction with nucleic acids (genomic DNA, hnRNA, transcript) and an indirect interaction via the induction of processes regulating gene expression (at the transcriptional and translational levels) involving regulatory proteins using endogenous cellular mechanisms. Presumed mechanisms of oligonucleotides' action in plant cells (including differences from animal cells) are described in this review. Basic principles of oligo action in plants that allow bidirectional changes in gene activity and even those that lead to heritable epigenetic changes in gene expression are presented. The effect of oligos is related to the target sequence at which they are directed. This paper also compares different delivery methods and provides a quick guide to using IT tools to help design oligonucleotides.

Diabetic cardiomyopathy: The role of microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is on the rise, necessitating the development of novel therapeutic and preventive strategies to mitigate the disease's debilitating effects. Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCMP) is among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients globally. DCMP manifests as cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, apoptosis, and myocardial interstitial fibrosis before progressing to heart failure. Evidence suggests that non-coding RNAs, such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), regulate diabetic cardiomyopathy-related processes such as insulin resistance, cardiomyocyte apoptosis and inflammation, emphasizing their heart-protective effects. This paper reviewed the literature data from animal and human studies on the non-trivial roles of miRNAs and lncRNAs in the context of DCMP in diabetes and demonstrated their future potential in DCMP treatment in diabetic patients.

Antitumor Activity of Anti-miR-21 Delivered through Lipid Nanoparticles

The ability of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to deliver nucleic acids have shown a great therapeutic potential to treat a variety of diseases. Here, an optimized formulation of QTsome lipid nanoparticles (QTPlus) is utilized to deliver an anti-miR-21 (AM21) against cancer. The miR-21 downstream gene regulation and antitumor activity is evaluated using mouse and human cancer cells and macrophages. The antitumor activity of QTPlus encapsulating AM21 (QTPlus-AM21) is further evaluated in combination with erlotinib and atezolizumab (ATZ). QTPlus-AM21 demonstrates a superior miR-21-dependent gene regulation and eventually inhibits A549 non-small cell lung cancer growth in vitro. QTPlus-AM21 further induces chemo-sensitization of A549 cells to erlotinib with a combination index of 0.6 in inhibiting A549 cell growth. When systemically administers to MC38 tumor-bearing mouse model, QTPlus-AM21 exhibits an antitumor immune response with over 80% tumor growth inhibition (TGI%) and over twofold and fourfold PD-1 and PD-L1 upregulation in tumors and spleens. The combination therapy of QTPlus-AM21 and ATZ further shows a higher antitumor response (TGI% over 90%) and successfully increases M1 macrophages and CD8 T cells into TME. This study provides new insights into the antitumor mechanism of AM21 and shows great promise of QTPlus-AM21 in combination with chemotherapies and immunotherapies.

Nucleic acid therapies for CNS diseases: Pathophysiology, targets, barriers, and delivery strategies

Nucleic acid therapeutics have emerged as one of the very advanced and efficacious treatment approaches for debilitating health conditions, including those diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS). Precise targeting with an optimal control over gene regulation confers long-lasting benefits through the administration of nucleic acid payloads via viral, non-viral, and engineered vectors. The current review majorly focuses on the development and clinical translational potential of non-viral vectors for treating CNS diseases with a focus on their specific design and targeting approaches. These carriers must be able to surmount the various intracellular and extracellular barriers, to ensure successful neuronal transfection and ultimately attain higher therapeutic efficacies. Additionally, the specific challenges associated with CNS administration also include the presence of blood-brain barrier (BBB), the complex pathophysiological and biochemical changes associated with different disease conditions and the existence of non-dividing cells. The advantages offered by lipid-based or polymeric systems, engineered proteins, particle-based systems coupled with various approaches of neuronal targeting have been discussed in the context of a variety of CNS diseases. The possibilities of rapid yet highly efficient gene modifications rendered by the breakthrough methodologies for gene editing and gene manipulation have also opened vast avenues of research in neuroscience and CNS disease therapy. The current review also underscores the extensive scientific efforts to optimize specialized, efficacious yet non-invasive and safer administration approaches to overcome the therapeutic delivery challenges specifically posed by the CNS transport barriers and the overall obstacles to clinical translation.

An overview of structural approaches to study therapeutic RNAs

RNAs provide considerable opportunities as therapeutic agent to expand the plethora of classical therapeutic targets, from extracellular and surface proteins to intracellular nucleic acids and its regulators, in a wide range of diseases. RNA versatility can be exploited to recognize cell types, perform cell therapy, and develop new vaccine classes. Therapeutic RNAs (aptamers, antisense nucleotides, siRNA, miRNA, mRNA and CRISPR-Cas9) can modulate or induce protein expression, inhibit molecular interactions, achieve genome editing as well as exon-skipping. A common RNA thread, which makes it very promising for therapeutic applications, is its structure, flexibility, and binding specificity. Moreover, RNA displays peculiar structural plasticity compared to proteins as well as to DNA. Here we summarize the recent advances and applications of therapeutic RNAs, and the experimental and computational methods to analyze their structure, by biophysical techniques (liquid-state NMR, scattering, reactivity, and computational simulations), with a focus on dynamic and flexibility aspects and to binding analysis. This will provide insights on the currently available RNA therapeutic applications and on the best techniques to evaluate its dynamics and reactivity.

Antisense oligonucleotide gapmers containing phosphoryl guanidine groups reverse MDR1-mediated multiple drug resistance of tumor cells

Antisense gapmer oligonucleotides containing phosphoryl guanidine (PG) groups, e.g., 1,3-dimethylimidazolidin-2-imine, at three to five internucleotidic positions adjacent to the 3' and 5' ends were prepared via the Staudinger chemistry, which is compatible with conditions of standard automated solid-phase phosphoramidite synthesis for phosphodiester and, notably, phosphorothioate linkages, and allows one to design a variety of gapmeric structures with alternating linkages, and deoxyribose or 2'-O-methylribose backbone. PG modifications increased nuclease resistance in serum-containing medium for more than 21 days. Replacing two internucleotidic phosphates by PG groups in phosphorothioate-modified oligonucleotides did not decrease their cellular uptake in the absence of lipid carriers. Increasing the number of PG groups from two to seven per oligonucleotide reduced their ability to enter the cells in the carrier-free mode. Cationic liposomes provided similar delivery efficiency of both partially PG-modified and unmodified oligonucleotides. PG-gapmers were designed containing three to four PG groups at both wings and a central "window" of seven deoxynucleotides with either phosphodiester or phosphorothioate linkages targeted to MDR1 mRNA providing multiple drug resistance of tumor cells. Gapmers efficiently silenced MDR1 mRNA and restored the sensitivity of tumor cells to chemotherapeutics. Thus, PG-gapmers can be considered as novel, promising types of antisense oligonucleotides for targeting biologically relevant RNAs.

Polyglutamine Ataxias: Our Current Molecular Understanding and What the Future Holds for Antisense Therapies

Polyglutamine (polyQ) ataxias are a heterogenous group of neurological disorders all caused by an expanded CAG trinucleotide repeat located in the coding region of each unique causative gene. To date, polyQ ataxias encompass six disorders: spinocerebellar ataxia types 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 17 and account for a larger group of disorders simply known as polyglutamine disorders, which also includes Huntington's disease. These diseases are typically characterised by progressive ataxia, speech and swallowing difficulties, lack of coordination and gait, and are unfortunately fatal in nature, with the exception of SCA6. All the polyQ spinocerebellar ataxias have a hallmark feature of neuronal aggregations and share many common pathogenic mechanisms, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired proteasomal function, and autophagy impairment. Currently, therapeutic options are limited, with no available treatments that slow or halt disease progression. Here, we discuss the common molecular and clinical presentations of polyQ spinocerebellar ataxias. We will also discuss the promising antisense oligonucleotide therapeutics being developed as treatments for these devastating diseases. With recent advancements and therapeutic approvals of various antisense therapies, it is envisioned that some of the studies reviewed may progress into clinical trials and beyond.

High Concentration of an ISS-N1-Targeting Antisense Oligonucleotide Causes Massive Perturbation of the Transcriptome

Intronic splicing silencer N1 (ISS-N1) located within Survival Motor Neuron 2 (SMN2) intron 7 is the target of a therapeutic antisense oligonucleotide (ASO), nusinersen (Spinraza), which is currently being used for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a leading genetic disease associated with infant mortality. The discovery of ISS-N1 as a promising therapeutic target was enabled in part by Anti-N1, a 20-mer ASO that restored SMN2 exon 7 inclusion by annealing to ISS-N1. Here, we analyzed the transcriptome of SMA patient cells treated with 100 nM of Anti-N1 for 30 h. Such concentrations are routinely used to demonstrate the efficacy of an ASO. While 100 nM of Anti-N1 substantially stimulated SMN2 exon 7 inclusion, it also caused massive perturbations in the transcriptome and triggered widespread aberrant splicing, affecting expression of essential genes associated with multiple cellular processes such as transcription, splicing, translation, cell signaling, cell cycle, macromolecular trafficking, cytoskeletal dynamics, and innate immunity. We validated our findings with quantitative and semiquantitative PCR of 39 candidate genes associated with diverse pathways. We also showed a substantial reduction in off-target effects with shorter ISS-N1-targeting ASOs. Our findings are significant for implementing better ASO design and dosing regimens of ASO-based drugs.

Noncoding RNA therapeutics - challenges and potential solutions

Therapeutic targeting of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), represents an attractive approach for the treatment of cancers, as well as many other diseases. Over the past decade, substantial effort has been made towards the clinical application of RNA-based therapeutics, employing mostly antisense oligonucleotides and small interfering RNAs, with several gaining FDA approval. However, trial results have so far been ambivalent, with some studies reporting potent effects whereas others demonstrated limited efficacy or toxicity. Alternative entities such as antimiRNAs are undergoing clinical testing, and lncRNA-based therapeutics are gaining interest. In this Perspective, we discuss key challenges facing ncRNA therapeutics - including issues associated with specificity, delivery and tolerability - and focus on promising emerging approaches that aim to boost their success.

Spinal muscular atrophy: Broad disease spectrum and sex-specific phenotypes

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is one of the major genetic disorders associated with infant mortality. More than 90% of cases of SMA result from deletions of or mutations in the Survival Motor Neuron 1 (SMN1) gene. SMN2, a nearly identical copy of SMN1, does not compensate for the loss of SMN1 due to predominant skipping of exon 7. The spectrum of SMA is broad, ranging from prenatal death to infant mortality to survival into adulthood. All tissues, including brain, spinal cord, bone, skeletal muscle, heart, lung, liver, pancreas, gastrointestinal tract, kidney, spleen, ovary and testis, are directly and/or indirectly affected in SMA. Accumulating evidence on impaired mitochondrial biogenesis and defects in X chromosome-linked modifying factors, coupled with the sexual dimorphic nature of many tissues, point to sex-specific vulnerabilities in SMA. Here we review the role of sex in the pathogenesis of SMA.

Nucleic Acid-Based Technologies Targeting Coronaviruses

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is currently creating a global health emergency. This crisis is driving a worldwide effort to develop effective vaccines, prophylactics, and therapeutics. Nucleic acid (NA)-based treatments hold great potential to combat outbreaks of coronaviruses (CoVs) due to their rapid development, high target specificity, and the capacity to increase druggability. Here, we review key anti-CoV NA-based technologies, including antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), siRNAs, RNA-targeting clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated protein (CRISPR-Cas), and mRNA vaccines, and discuss improved delivery methods and combination therapies with other antiviral drugs.

The First Orally Deliverable Small Molecule for the Treatment of Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is 1 of the leading causes of infant mortality. SMA is mostly caused by low levels of Survival Motor Neuron (SMN) protein due to deletion of or mutation in the SMN1 gene. Its nearly identical copy, SMN2, fails to compensate for the loss of SMN1 due to predominant skipping of exon 7. Correction of SMN2 exon 7 splicing by an antisense oligonucleotide (ASO), nusinersen (Spinraza™), that targets the intronic splicing silencer N1 (ISS-N1) became the first approved therapy for SMA. Restoration of SMN levels using gene therapy was the next. Very recently, an orally deliverable small molecule, risdiplam (Evrysdi™), became the third approved therapy for SMA. Here we discuss how these therapies are positioned to meet the needs of the broad phenotypic spectrum of SMA patients.

TPC2-mediated Ca2+ signaling is required for axon extension in caudal primary motor neurons in zebrafish embryos

The role of two-pore channel type 2 (TPC2, encoded by tcpn2)-mediated Ca2+ release was recently characterized in zebrafish during establishment of the early spinal circuitry, one of the key events in the coordination of neuromuscular activity. Here, we extend our study to investigate the in vivo role of TPC2 in the regulation of caudal primary motor neuron (CaP) axon extension. We used a combination of TPC2 knockdown with a translation-blocking morpholino antisense oligonucleotide (MO), TPC2 knockout via the generation of a tpcn2dhkz1a mutant line of zebrafish using CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing and pharmacological inhibition of TPC2 via incubation with bafilomycin A1 (an H+-ATPase inhibitor) or trans-ned-19 (an NAADP receptor antagonist), and showed that these treatments attenuated CaP Ca2+ signaling and inhibited axon extension. We also characterized the expression of an arc1-like transcript in CaPs grown in primary culture. MO-mediated knockdown of ARC1-like in vivo led to attenuation of the Ca2+ transients in the CaP growth cones and an inhibition of axon extension. Together, our new data suggest a link between ARC1-like, TPC2 and Ca2+ signaling during axon extension in zebrafish.

Metallacarborane Complex Boosts the Rate of DNA Oligonucleotide Hydrolysis in the Reaction Catalyzed by Snake Venom Phosphodiesterase

Antisense oligonucleotides conjugated with boron clusters (B-ASOs) have been described as potential gene expression inhibitors and carriers of boron for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), providing a dual-action therapeutic platform. In this study, we tested the nucleolytic stability of DNA oligonucleotides labeled with metallacarborane [(3,3'-iron-1,2,1',2'-dicarbollide)(-1)]ate [Fe(C₂B₉H₁₁)₂] (FESAN) against snake venom phosphodiesterase (svPDE, 3'→5'-exonuclease). Contrary to the previously observed protective effect of carborane (C₂B₁₀H₁₂) modifications, the B-ASOs containing a metallacarborane moiety at the 5'-end of the oligonucleotide chain were hydrolyzed faster than their parent nonmodified oligomers. Interestingly, an enhancement in the hydrolysis rate was also observed in the presence of free metallacarborane, and this reaction was dependent on the concentration of the metallacarborane. Microscale thermophoresis (MST) analysis confirmed the high affinity (K_d nM range) of the binding of the metallacarborane to the proteins of crude snake venom and the moderate affinity (K_d µM range) between the metallacarborane and the short single-stranded DNA. We hypothesize that the metallacarborane complex covalently bound to B-ASO holds DNA molecules close to the protein surface, facilitating enzymatic cleavage. The addition of metallacarborane alone to the ASO/svPDE reaction mixture provides the interface to attract freely floating DNA molecules. In both cases, the local DNA concentration around the enzymes increases, giving rise to faster hydrolysis. It was experimentally shown that an allosteric effect, possibly attributable to the observed boost in the 3´→5´-exonucleolytic activity of snake venom phosphodiesterase, is much less plausible.

Transcription and Translation Inhibitors in Cancer Treatment

Transcription and translation are fundamental cellular processes that govern the protein production of cells. These processes are generally up regulated in cancer cells, to maintain the enhanced metabolism and proliferative state of these cells. As such cancerous cells can be susceptible to transcription and translation inhibitors. There are numerous druggable proteins involved in transcription and translation which make lucrative targets for cancer drug development. In addition to proteins, recent years have shown that the "undruggable" transcription factors and RNA molecules can also be targeted to hamper the transcription or translation in cancer. In this review, we summarize the properties and function of the transcription and translation inhibitors that have been tested and developed, focusing on the advances of the last 5 years. To complement this, we also discuss some of the recent advances in targeting oncogenes tightly controlling transcription including transcription factors and KRAS. In addition to natural and synthetic compounds, we review DNA and RNA based approaches to develop cancer drugs. Finally, we conclude with the outlook to the future of the development of transcription and translation inhibitors.

Alternative Splicing of ALS Genes: Misregulation and Potential Therapies

Neurodegenerative disorders such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's disease affect a rapidly increasing population worldwide. Although common pathogenic mechanisms have been identified (e.g., protein aggregation or dysfunction, immune response alteration and axonal degeneration), the molecular events underlying timing, dosage, expression, and location of RNA molecules are still not fully elucidated. In particular, the alternative splicing (AS) mechanism is a crucial player in RNA processing and represents a fundamental determinant for brain development, as well as for the physiological functions of neuronal circuits. Although in recent years our knowledge of AS events has increased substantially, deciphering the molecular interconnections between splicing and ALS remains a complex task and still requires considerable efforts. In the present review, we will summarize the current scientific evidence outlining the involvement of AS in the pathogenic processes of ALS. We will also focus on recent insights concerning the tuning of splicing mechanisms by epigenomic and epi-transcriptomic regulation, providing an overview of the available genomic technologies to investigate AS drivers on a genome-wide scale, even at a single-cell level resolution. In the future, gene therapy strategies and RNA-based technologies may be utilized to intercept or modulate the splicing mechanism and produce beneficial effects against ALS.

A series of 10 Polish patients with thromboembolic events and antithrombin deficiency: two new c.1154-1 G>C and c.1219-534 A>G SERPINC1 gene splicing mutations

: Inherited antithrombin (AT) deficiency, with prevalence in the general population ranging 0.02-0.17%, is an autosomal dominant disorder associated with a high risk of venous thromboembolism. In most cases, deficiency is caused by mutations in the AT-coding gene (SERPINC1). Only 24 splicing defects have been described causing AT deficiency, all affecting exon flanking regions. The aim of the current study was to characterize the mutations underlying AT deficiency in 10 venous thromboembolism Polish patients aged 42.9 (14-63) years. Whole SERPINC1 gene sequencing was done by next generation sequencing methods. Eight cases had mutations previously described. However, we identified two new intronic mutations that might affect the correct splicing of exon 6 according to in-silico predictions: c.1154-1 G>C, which strongly disturbs the acceptor sequence and c.1219-534 A>G, a deep intronic mutation that might generate a cryptic donor sequence; both might compete with the wild-type donor sequence and explain the associated moderate AT deficiency of carriers. In conclusion, we show the molecular base of AT deficiency in 10 new Polish patients, including two novel SERPINC1 gene mutations potentially affecting splicing.