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Wang H, Qi LL, Shema C, Jiang KY, Ren P, Wang H, Wang L. Advances in the role and mechanism of fibroblasts in fracture healing. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2024; 15:1350958. [PMID: 38469138 PMCID: PMC10925620 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2024.1350958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
With the development of social population ageing, bone fracture has become a global public health problem due to its high morbidity, disability and mortality. Fracture healing is a complex phenomenon involving the coordinated participation of immigration, differentiation and proliferation of inflammatory cells, angioblasts, fibroblasts, chondroblasts and osteoblasts which synthesize and release bioactive substances of extracellular matrix components, Mortality caused by age-related bone fractures or osteoporosis is steadily increasing worldwide as the population ages. Fibroblasts play an important role in the process of fracture healing. However, it is not clear how the growth factors and extracellular matrix stiffness of the bone-regeneration microenvironment affects the function of osteoblasts and fibroblasts in healing process. Therefore, this article focuses on the role of fibroblasts in the process of fracture healing and mechanisms of research progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Li-li Qi
- Experimental Center for Teaching of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Clement Shema
- Department of Orthopedic Research Center, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
- International Education College of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Kui-ying Jiang
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Basic Medical Education, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ping Ren
- Experimental Center for Teaching of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - He Wang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Institute of Medicine and Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
- The Key Laboratory of Neural and Vascular Biology, Ministry of Education, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
- Neuroscience Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease Mechanism, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
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Wang D, Zhang X, Huang S, Liu Y, Fu BSC, Mak KKL, Blocki AM, Yung PSH, Tuan RS, Ker DFE. Engineering multi-tissue units for regenerative Medicine: Bone-tendon-muscle units of the rotator cuff. Biomaterials 2021; 272:120789. [PMID: 33845368 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.120789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Our body systems are comprised of numerous multi-tissue units. For the musculoskeletal system, one of the predominant functional units is comprised of bone, tendon/ligament, and muscle tissues working in tandem to facilitate locomotion. To successfully treat musculoskeletal injuries and diseases, critical consideration and thoughtful integration of clinical, biological, and engineering aspects are necessary to achieve translational bench-to-bedside research. In particular, identifying ideal biomaterial design specifications, understanding prior and recent tissue engineering advances, and judicious application of biomaterial and fabrication technologies will be crucial for addressing current clinical challenges in engineering multi-tissue units. Using rotator cuff tears as an example, insights relevant for engineering a bone-tendon-muscle multi-tissue unit are presented. This review highlights the tissue engineering strategies for musculoskeletal repair and regeneration with implications for other bone-tendon-muscle units, their derivatives, and analogous non-musculoskeletal tissue structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Wang
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Xu Zhang
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Shuting Huang
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Bruma Sai-Chuen Fu
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | | | - Anna Maria Blocki
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Patrick Shu-Hang Yung
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Rocky S Tuan
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Dai Fei Elmer Ker
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR; Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR.
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Ker DFE, Wang D, Behn AW, Wang ETH, Zhang X, Zhou BY, Mercado-Pagán ÁE, Kim S, Kleimeyer J, Gharaibeh B, Shanjani Y, Nelson D, Safran M, Cheung E, Campbell P, Yang YP. Functionally Graded, Bone- and Tendon-Like Polyurethane for Rotator Cuff Repair. ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2018; 28:1707107. [PMID: 29785178 PMCID: PMC5959293 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201707107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Critical considerations in engineering biomaterials for rotator cuff repair include bone-tendon-like mechanical properties to support physiological loading and biophysicochemical attributes that stabilize the repair site over the long-term. In this study, UV-crosslinkable polyurethane based on quadrol (Q), hexamethylene diisocyante (H), and methacrylic anhydride (M; QHM polymers), which are free of solvent, catalyst, and photoinitiator, is developed. Mechanical characterization studies demonstrate that QHM polymers possesses phototunable bone- and tendon-like tensile and compressive properties (12-74 MPa tensile strength, 0.6-2.7 GPa tensile modulus, 58-121 MPa compressive strength, and 1.5-3.0 GPa compressive modulus), including the capability to withstand 10 000 cycles of physiological tensile loading and reduce stress concentrations via stiffness gradients. Biophysicochemical studies demonstrate that QHM polymers have clinically favorable attributes vital to rotator cuff repair stability, including slow degradation profiles (5-30% mass loss after 8 weeks) with little-to-no cytotoxicity in vitro, exceptional suture retention ex vivo (2.79-3.56-fold less suture migration relative to a clinically available graft), and competent tensile properties (similar ultimate load but higher normalized tensile stiffness relative to a clinically available graft) as well as good biocompatibility for augmenting rat supraspinatus tendon repair in vivo. This work demonstrates functionally graded, bone-tendon-like biomaterials for interfacial tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai Fei Elmer Ker
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Dan Wang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Anthony William Behn
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Evelyna Tsi Hsin Wang
- Department of Material Science and Engineering Stanford University 496 Lomita Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Xu Zhang
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine The Chinese University of Hong Kong New Territories, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Benjamin Yamin Zhou
- Department of Mathematics Stanford University Building 380, Sloan Mathematical Center, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | | | - Sungwoo Kim
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - John Kleimeyer
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Burhan Gharaibeh
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Pittsburgh 4249 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Yaser Shanjani
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Drew Nelson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Stanford University 440 Escondido Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Marc Safran
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Emilie Cheung
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Phil Campbell
- Engineering Research Accelerator Carnegie Mellon University 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Yunzhi Peter Yang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Abstract
For decades, researchers have been fascinated by the strategy of using cell therapy for bone defects; some progress in the field has been made. Owing to its ample supply and easy access, skin, the largest organ in the body, has gained attention as a potential source of stem cells. Despite extensive applications in skin and nerve regeneration, an increasing number of reports indicate its potential use in bone tissue engineering and regeneration. Unfortunately, few review articles are available to outline current research efforts in skin-based osteogenesis. This review first summarizes the latest findings on stem cells or progenitors in skin and their niches and then discusses the strategies of skin cell-based osteogenesis. We hope this article elucidates this topic and generates new ideas for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingliang Wang
- Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA.,Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lian Zhu
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ming Pei
- Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA.,Division of Exercise Physiology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA.,Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center, Robert C. Byrd Health Sciences Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
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Baniwal SK, Little GH, Chimge NO, Frenkel B. Runx2 controls a feed-forward loop between androgen and prolactin-induced protein (PIP) in stimulating T47D cell proliferation. J Cell Physiol 2012; 227:2276-82. [PMID: 21809344 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.22966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Prolactin-Induced Protein (PIP) is a small polypeptide expressed by breast and prostate cancer (BCa, PCa) cells. However, both the regulation of PIP expression and its function in cancer cells are poorly understood. Using BCa and PCa cells, we found that Runx2, a pro-metastatic transcription factor, functionally interacts with the Androgen Receptor (AR) to regulate PIP expression. Runx2 expression in C4-2B PCa cells synergized with AR to promote PIP expression, whereas its knockdown in T47D BCa cells abrogated basal as well as hormone stimulated PIP expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays showed that Runx2 and AR co-occupied an enhancer element located ∼11 kb upstream of the PIP open reading frame, and that Runx2 facilitated AR recruitment to the enhancer. PIP knockdown in T47D cells compromised DHT-stimulated expression of multiple AR target genes including PSA, FKBP5, FASN, and SGK1. The inhibition of AR activity due to loss of PIP was attributable at least in part to abrogation of its nuclear translocation. PIP knockdown also suppressed T47D cell proliferation driven by either serum growth factors or dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Our data suggest that Runx2 controls a positive feedback loop between androgen signaling and PIP, and pharmacological inhibition of PIP may be useful to treat PIP positive tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeev K Baniwal
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA.
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Baniwal SK, Shah PK, Shi Y, Haduong JH, Declerck YA, Gabet Y, Frenkel B. Runx2 promotes both osteoblastogenesis and novel osteoclastogenic signals in ST2 mesenchymal progenitor cells. Osteoporos Int 2012; 23:1399-413. [PMID: 21881969 PMCID: PMC5771409 DOI: 10.1007/s00198-011-1728-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED We profiled the global gene expression of a bone marrow-derived mesenchymal pluripotent cell line in response to Runx2 expression. Besides osteoblast differentiation, Runx2 promoted the osteoclastogenesis of co-cultured splenocytes. This was attributable to the upregulation of many novel osteoclastogenic genes and the downregulation of anti-osteoclastogenic genes. INTRODUCTION In addition to being a master regulator for osteoblast differentiation, Runx2 controls osteoblast-driven osteoclastogenesis. Previous studies profiling gene expression during osteoblast differentiation had limited focus on Runx2 or paid little attention to its role in mediating osteoblast-driven osteoclastogenesis. METHODS ST2/Rx2(dox), a bone marrow-derived mesenchymal pluripotent cell line that expresses Runx2 in response to Doxycycline (Dox), was used to profile Runx2-induced gene expression changes. Runx2-induced osteoblast differentiation was assessed based on alkaline phosphatase staining and expression of classical marker genes. Osteoclastogenic potential was evaluated by TRAP staining of osteoclasts that differentiated from primary murine splenocytes co-cultured with the ST2/Rx2(dox) cells. The BeadChip™ platform (Illumina) was used to interrogate genome-wide expression changes in ST2/Rx2(dox) cultures after treatment with Dox or vehicle for 24 or 48 h. Expression of selected genes was also measured by RT-qPCR. RESULTS Dox-mediated Runx2 induction in ST2 cells stimulated their own differentiation along the osteoblast lineage and the differentiation of co-cultured splenocytes into osteoclasts. The latter was attributable to the stimulation of osteoclastogenic genes such as Sema7a, Ltc4s, Efnb1, Apcdd1, and Tnc as well as the inhibition of anti-osteoclastogenic genes such as Tnfrsf11b (OPG), Sema3a, Slco2b1, Ogn, Clec2d (Ocil), Il1rn, and Rspo2. CONCLUSION Direct control of osteoblast differentiation and concomitant indirect control of osteoclast differentiation, both through the activity of Runx2 in pre-osteoblasts, constitute a novel mechanism of coordination with a potential crucial role in coupling bone formation and resorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Baniwal
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Uemura T, Kojima H. Bone formation in vivo induced by Cbfa1-carrying adenoviral vectors released from a biodegradable porous β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) material. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATERIALS 2011; 12:034405. [PMID: 27877396 PMCID: PMC5090468 DOI: 10.1088/1468-6996/12/3/034405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2010] [Revised: 05/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/25/2011] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Overexpression of Cbfa1 (a transcription factor indispensable for osteoblastic differentiation) is expected to induce the formation of bone directly and indirectly in vivo by accelerating osteoblastic differentiation. Adenoviral vectors carrying the cDNA of Cbfa1/til-1(Adv-Cbf1) were allowed to be adsorbed onto porous blocks of β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP), a biodegradable ceramic, which were then implanted subcutaneously and orthotopically into bone defects. The adenoviral vectors were released sustainingly by biodegradation, providing long-term expression of the genes. Results of the subcutaneous implantation of Adv-Cbfa1-adsorbed β-TCP/osteoprogenitor cells suggest that a larger amount of bone formed in the pores of the implant than in the control material. Regarding orthotopic implantation into bone defects, the released Adv-Cbfa1 accelerated regeneration in the cortical bone, whereas it induced bone resorption in the marrow cavity. A safer gene transfer using a smaller amount of the vector was achieved using biodegradable porous β-TCP as a carrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshimasa Uemura
- Nanosystem Research Institute (NRI), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba Central-4, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8562, Japan
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Abstract
Viral vector is the most effective means of gene transfer to modify specific cell type or tissue and can be manipulated to express therapeutic genes. Several virus types are currently being investigated for use to deliver genes to cells to provide either transient or permanent transgene expression. These include adenoviruses (Ads), retroviruses (γ-retroviruses and lentiviruses), poxviruses, adeno-associated viruses, baculoviruses, and herpes simplex viruses. The choice of virus for routine clinical use will depend on the efficiency of transgene expression, ease of production, safety, toxicity, and stability. This chapter provides an introductory overview of the general characteristics of viral vectors commonly used in gene transfer and their advantages and disadvantages for gene therapy use.
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Affiliation(s)
- James N Warnock
- School of Chemical & Bioprocess Engineering and Conway Institute for Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
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Baniwal SK, Khalid O, Gabet Y, Shah RR, Purcell DJ, Mav D, Kohn-Gabet AE, Shi Y, Coetzee GA, Frenkel B. Runx2 transcriptome of prostate cancer cells: insights into invasiveness and bone metastasis. Mol Cancer 2010; 9:258. [PMID: 20863401 PMCID: PMC2955618 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-9-258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Accepted: 09/23/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Prostate cancer (PCa) cells preferentially metastasize to bone at least in part by acquiring osteomimetic properties. Runx2, an osteoblast master transcription factor, is aberrantly expressed in PCa cells, and promotes their metastatic phenotype. The transcriptional programs regulated by Runx2 have been extensively studied during osteoblastogenesis, where it activates or represses target genes in a context-dependent manner. However, little is known about the gene regulatory networks influenced by Runx2 in PCa cells. We therefore investigated genome wide mRNA expression changes in PCa cells in response to Runx2. Results We engineered a C4-2B PCa sub-line called C4-2B/Rx2dox, in which Doxycycline (Dox) treatment stimulates Runx2 expression from very low to levels observed in other PCa cells. Transcriptome profiling using whole genome expression array followed by in silico analysis indicated that Runx2 upregulated a multitude of genes with prominent cancer associated functions. They included secreted factors (CSF2, SDF-1), proteolytic enzymes (MMP9, CST7), cytoskeleton modulators (SDC2, Twinfilin, SH3PXD2A), intracellular signaling molecules (DUSP1, SPHK1, RASD1) and transcription factors (Sox9, SNAI2, SMAD3) functioning in epithelium to mesenchyme transition (EMT), tissue invasion, as well as homing and attachment to bone. Consistent with the gene expression data, induction of Runx2 in C4-2B cells enhanced their invasiveness. It also promoted cellular quiescence by blocking the G1/S phase transition during cell cycle progression. Furthermore, the cell cycle block was reversed as Runx2 levels declined after Dox withdrawal. Conclusions The effects of Runx2 in C4-2B/Rx2dox cells, as well as similar observations made by employing LNCaP, 22RV1 and PC3 cells, highlight multiple mechanisms by which Runx2 promotes the metastatic phenotype of PCa cells, including tissue invasion, homing to bone and induction of high bone turnover. Runx2 is therefore an attractive target for the development of novel diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic approaches to PCa management. Targeting Runx2 may prove more effective than focusing on its individual downstream genes and pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeev K Baniwal
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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Porter JR, Ruckh TT, Popat KC. Bone tissue engineering: a review in bone biomimetics and drug delivery strategies. Biotechnol Prog 2010; 25:1539-60. [PMID: 19824042 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Critical-sized defects in bone, whether induced by primary tumor resection, trauma, or selective surgery have in many cases presented insurmountable challenges to the current gold standard treatment for bone repair. The primary purpose of a tissue-engineered scaffold is to use engineering principles to incite and promote the natural healing process of bone which does not occur in critical-sized defects. A synthetic bone scaffold must be biocompatible, biodegradable to allow native tissue integration, and mimic the multidimensional hierarchical structure of native bone. In addition to being physically and chemically biomimetic, an ideal scaffold is capable of eluting bioactive molecules (e.g., BMPs, TGF-betas, etc., to accelerate extracellular matrix production and tissue integration) or drugs (e.g., antibiotics, cisplatin, etc., to prevent undesired biological response such as sepsis or cancer recurrence) in a temporally and spatially controlled manner. Various biomaterials including ceramics, metals, polymers, and composites have been investigated for their potential as bone scaffold materials. However, due to their tunable physiochemical properties, biocompatibility, and controllable biodegradability, polymers have emerged as the principal material in bone tissue engineering. This article briefly reviews the physiological and anatomical characteristics of native bone, describes key technologies in mimicking the physical and chemical environment of bone using synthetic materials, and provides an overview of local drug delivery as it pertains to bone tissue engineering is included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua R Porter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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