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Wen Z, Zeng Z, Ren F, Asiegbu FO. The Conifer Root and Stem Rot Pathogen ( Heterobasidion parviporum): Effectome Analysis and Roles in Interspecific Fungal Interactions. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7120658. [PMID: 31817407 PMCID: PMC6955712 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7120658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Heterobasidion parviporum Niemelä & Korhonen is an economically important basidiomycete, causing root and stem rot disease of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) in Northern Europe. The H. parviporum genome encodes numerous small secreted proteins, which might be of importance for interacting with mycorrhiza symbionts, endophytes, and other saprotrophs. We hypothesized that small secreted proteins from H. parviporum (HpSSPs) are involved in interspecific fungal interaction. To identify HpSSP-coding genes potentially involved, we screened the H. parviporum effectome and compared their transcriptomic profiles during fungal development and in planta tree infection. We further conducted phylogenetic analysis, and identified a subset of hypothetical proteins with nonpredicted domain or unknown function as HpSSPs candidates for further characterization. The HpSSPs candidates were selected based on high-quality sequence, cysteine residue frequency, protein size, and in planta expression. We subsequently explored their roles during in vitro interaction in paired cultures of H. parviporum with ectomycorrhizal Cortinarius gentilis, endophytic Phialocephala sphaeroides, saprotrophs (Mycena sp., Phlebiopsis gigantea, and Phanerochaete chrysosporium), respectively. The transcriptomic profile revealed that a large proportion of effector candidates was either barely expressed or highly expressed under all growth conditions. In vitro dual-culture test showed that P. sphaeroides and C. gentilis were overgrown by H. parviporum. The barrage zone formation or no physical contact observed in paired cultures with the saprotrophs suggest they had either combative interaction or antibiosis effect with H. parviporum. Several HpSSPs individuals were up- or downregulated during the nonself interactions. The results of HpSSPs gene expression patterns provide additional insights into the diverse roles of SSPs in tree infection and interspecific fungal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zilan Wen
- Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, P. O. Box 27, Latokartanonkaari 7, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (Z.W.); (Z.Z.); (F.R.)
| | - Zhen Zeng
- Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, P. O. Box 27, Latokartanonkaari 7, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (Z.W.); (Z.Z.); (F.R.)
| | - Fei Ren
- Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, P. O. Box 27, Latokartanonkaari 7, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (Z.W.); (Z.Z.); (F.R.)
- Experimental Center of Forestry in North China, Chinese Academy of Forestry, No. 1 Shuiza Road, Beijing 102300, China
| | - Fred O. Asiegbu
- Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, P. O. Box 27, Latokartanonkaari 7, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; (Z.W.); (Z.Z.); (F.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +358-294158109
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Ökmen B, Mathow D, Hof A, Lahrmann U, Aßmann D, Doehlemann G. Mining the effector repertoire of the biotrophic fungal pathogen Ustilago hordei during host and non-host infection. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2018; 19:2603-2622. [PMID: 30047221 PMCID: PMC6638180 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The success of plant-pathogenic fungi mostly relies on their arsenal of virulence factors which are expressed and delivered into the host tissue during colonization. The biotrophic fungal pathogen Ustilago hordei causes covered smut disease on both barley and oat. In this study, we combined cytological, genomics and molecular biological methods to achieve a better understanding of the molecular interactions in the U. hordei-barley pathosystem. Microscopic analysis revealed that U. hordei densely colonizes barley leaves on penetration, in particular the vascular system. Transcriptome analysis of U. hordei at different stages of host infection revealed differential expression of the transcript levels of 273 effector gene candidates. Furthermore, U. hordei transcriptionally activates core effector genes which may suppress even non-host early defence responses. Based on expression profiles and novelty of sequences, knockout studies of 14 effector candidates were performed in U. hordei, which resulted in the identification of four virulence factors required for host colonization. Yeast two-hybrid screening identified potential barley targets for two of the effectors. Overall, this study provides a first systematic analysis of the effector repertoire of U. hordei and identifies four effectors (Uvi1-Uvi4) as virulence factors for the infection of barley.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilal Ökmen
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS)University of CologneBioCenter, Zuelpicher Str. 47a50674CologneGermany
| | - Daniel Mathow
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Department of Organismic InteractionsKarl von Frisch StrD‐35043MarburgGermany
| | - Alexander Hof
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Department of Organismic InteractionsKarl von Frisch StrD‐35043MarburgGermany
| | - Urs Lahrmann
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine ITEM, Division of Personalized Tumor Therapy93053RegensburgGermany
| | - Daniela Aßmann
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Department of Organismic InteractionsKarl von Frisch StrD‐35043MarburgGermany
| | - Gunther Doehlemann
- Botanical Institute and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS)University of CologneBioCenter, Zuelpicher Str. 47a50674CologneGermany
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Marton K, Flajšman M, Radišek S, Košmelj K, Jakše J, Javornik B, Berne S. Comprehensive analysis of Verticillium nonalfalfae in silico secretome uncovers putative effector proteins expressed during hop invasion. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198971. [PMID: 29894496 PMCID: PMC5997321 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The vascular plant pathogen Verticillium nonalfalfae causes Verticillium wilt in several important crops. VnaSSP4.2 was recently discovered as a V. nonalfalfae virulence effector protein in the xylem sap of infected hop. Here, we expanded our search for candidate secreted effector proteins (CSEPs) in the V. nonalfalfae predicted secretome using a bioinformatic pipeline built on V. nonalfalfae genome data, RNA-Seq and proteomic studies of the interaction with hop. The secretome, rich in carbohydrate active enzymes, proteases, redox proteins and proteins involved in secondary metabolism, cellular processing and signaling, includes 263 CSEPs. Several homologs of known fungal effectors (LysM, NLPs, Hce2, Cerato-platanins, Cyanovirin-N lectins, hydrophobins and CFEM domain containing proteins) and avirulence determinants in the PHI database (Avr-Pita1 and MgSM1) were found. The majority of CSEPs were non-annotated and were narrowed down to 44 top priority candidates based on their likelihood of being effectors. These were examined by spatio-temporal gene expression profiling of infected hop. Among the highest in planta expressed CSEPs, five deletion mutants were tested in pathogenicity assays. A deletion mutant of VnaUn.279, a lethal pathotype specific gene with sequence similarity to SAM-dependent methyltransferase (LaeA), had lower infectivity and showed highly reduced virulence, but no changes in morphology, fungal growth or conidiation were observed. Several putative secreted effector proteins that probably contribute to V. nonalfalfae colonization of hop were identified in this study. Among them, LaeA gene homolog was found to act as a potential novel virulence effector of V. nonalfalfae. The combined results will serve for future characterization of V. nonalfalfae effectors, which will advance our understanding of Verticillium wilt disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Marton
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marko Flajšman
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Katarina Košmelj
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jernej Jakše
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Branka Javornik
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sabina Berne
- Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Khatoon N, Pandey RK, Prajapati VK. Exploring Leishmania secretory proteins to design B and T cell multi-epitope subunit vaccine using immunoinformatics approach. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8285. [PMID: 28811600 PMCID: PMC5557753 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-08842-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a fatal form of leishmaniasis which affects 70 countries, worldwide. Increasing drug resistance, HIV co-infection, and poor health system require operative vaccination strategy to control the VL transmission dynamics. Therefore, a holistic approach is needed to generate T and B memory cells to mediate long-term immunity against VL infection. Consequently, immunoinformatics approach was applied to design Leishmania secretory protein based multi-epitope subunit vaccine construct consisting of B and T cell epitopes. Further, the physiochemical characterization was performed to check the aliphatic index, theoretical PI, molecular weight, and thermostable nature of vaccine construct. The allergenicity and antigenicity were also predicted to ensure the safety and immunogenic behavior of final vaccine construct. Moreover, homology modeling, followed by molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation study was also performed to evaluate the binding affinity and stability of receptor (TLR-4) and ligand (vaccine protein) complex. This study warrants the experimental validation to ensure the immunogenicity and safety profile of presented vaccine construct which may be further helpful to control VL infection.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Antigens, Protozoan/chemistry
- Antigens, Protozoan/genetics
- Antigens, Protozoan/immunology
- Codon
- Computational Biology
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/chemistry
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/chemistry
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Humans
- Immunogenicity, Vaccine
- Leishmania/immunology
- Leishmaniasis/immunology
- Leishmaniasis/metabolism
- Leishmaniasis/prevention & control
- Leishmaniasis Vaccines/chemistry
- Leishmaniasis Vaccines/immunology
- Models, Molecular
- Protein Binding
- Protein Conformation
- Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Toll-Like Receptor 4/chemistry
- Toll-Like Receptor 4/metabolism
- Vaccines, Subunit/chemistry
- Vaccines, Subunit/genetics
- Vaccines, Subunit/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazia Khatoon
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Kishangarh, 305817, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
| | - Rajan Kumar Pandey
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Kishangarh, 305817, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India
| | - Vijay Kumar Prajapati
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Kishangarh, 305817, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India.
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Flajsman M, Mandelc S, Radisek S, Stajner N, Jakse J, Kosmelj K, Javornik B. Identification of Novel Virulence-Associated Proteins Secreted to Xylem by Verticillium nonalfalfae During Colonization of Hop Plants. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2016; 29:362-373. [PMID: 26883488 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-01-16-0016-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Plant pathogens employ various secreted proteins to suppress host immunity for their successful host colonization. Identification and characterization of pathogen-secreted proteins can contribute to an understanding of the pathogenicity mechanism and help in disease control. We used proteomics to search for proteins secreted to xylem by the vascular pathogen Verticillium nonalfalfae during colonization of hop plants. Three highly abundant fungal proteins were identified: two enzymes, α-N-arabinofuranosidase (VnaAbf4.216) and peroxidase (VnaPRX1.1277), and one small secreted hypothetical protein (VnaSSP4.2). These are the first secreted proteins so far identified in xylem sap following infection with Verticillium spp. VnaPRX1.1277, classified as a heme-containing peroxidase from Class II, similar to other Verticillium spp. lignin-degrading peroxidases, and VnaSSP4.2, a 14-kDa cysteine-containing protein with unknown function and with a close homolog in related V. alfalfae strains, were further examined. The in planta expression of VnaPRX1.1277 and VnaSSP4.2 genes increased with the progression of colonization, implicating their role in fungal virulence. Indeed, V. nonalfalfae deletion mutants of both genes exhibited attenuated virulence on hop plants, which returned to the level of the wild-type pathogenicity in the knockout complementation lines, supporting VnaPRX1.1277 and VnaSSP4.2 as virulence factors required to promote V. nonalfalfae colonization of hop plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marko Flajsman
- 1 Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; and
| | - Stanislav Mandelc
- 1 Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; and
| | - Sebastjan Radisek
- 2 Slovenian Institute of Hop Research and Brewing, Cesta Zalskega Tabora 2, SI-3310 Zalec, Slovenia
| | - Natasa Stajner
- 1 Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; and
| | - Jernej Jakse
- 1 Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; and
| | - Katarina Kosmelj
- 1 Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; and
| | - Branka Javornik
- 1 Department of Agronomy, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; and
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Sędzielewska Toro K, Brachmann A. The effector candidate repertoire of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Rhizophagus clarus. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:101. [PMID: 26861502 PMCID: PMC4746824 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2422-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form an ecologically important symbiosis with more than two thirds of studied land plants. Recent studies of plant-pathogen interactions showed that effector proteins play a key role in host colonization by controlling the plant immune system. We hypothesise that also for symbiotic-plant interactions the secreted effectome of the fungus is a major component of communication and the conservation level of effector proteins between AMF species may be indicative whether they play a fundamental role. Results In this study, we used a bioinformatics pipeline to predict and compare the effector candidate repertoire of the two AMF species, Rhizophagus irregularis and Rhizophagus clarus. Our in silico pipeline revealed a list of 220 R. irregularis candidate effector genes that create a valuable information source to elucidate the mechanism of plant infection and colonization by fungi during AMF symbiotic interaction. While most of the candidate effectors show no homologies to known domains or proteins, the candidates with homologies point to potential roles in signal transduction, cell wall modification or transcription regulation. A remarkable aspect of our work is presence of a large portion of the effector proteins involved in symbiosis, which are not unique to each fungi or plant species, but shared along the Glomeromycota phylum. For 95 % of R. irregularis candidates we found homologs in a R. clarus genome draft generated by Illumina high-throughput sequencing. Interestingly, 9 % of the predicted effectors are at least as conserved between the two Rhizophagus species as proteins with housekeeping functions (similarity > 90 %). Therefore, we state that this group of highly conserved effector proteins between AMF species may play a fundamental role during fungus-plant interaction. Conclusions We hypothesise that in symbiotic interactions the secreted effectome of the fungus might be an important component of communication. Identification and functional characterization of the primary AMF effectors that regulate symbiotic development will help in understanding the mechanisms of fungus-plant interaction. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2422-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinga Sędzielewska Toro
- Genetics, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Großhaderner Straße 2-4, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.
| | - Andreas Brachmann
- Genetics, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Großhaderner Straße 2-4, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.
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Palaniswamy H, Syamaladevi DP, Mohan C, Philip A, Petchiyappan A, Narayanan S. Vacuolar targeting of r-proteins in sugarcane leads to higher levels of purifiable commercially equivalent recombinant proteins in cane juice. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2016; 14:791-807. [PMID: 26183462 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Revised: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Sugarcane is an ideal candidate for biofarming applications because of its large biomass, rapid growth rate, efficient carbon fixation pathway and a well-developed storage tissue system. Vacuoles occupy a large proportion of the storage parenchyma cells in the sugarcane stem, and the stored products can be harvested as juice by crushing the cane. Hence, for the production of any high-value protein, it could be targeted to the lytic vacuoles so as to extract and purify the protein of interest from the juice. There is no consensus vacuolar-targeting sequence so far to target any heterologous proteins to sugarcane vacuole. Hence, in this study, we identified an N-terminal 78-bp-long putative vacuolar-targeting sequence from the N-terminal domain of unknown function (DUF) in Triticum aestivum 6-SFT (sucrose: fructan 6-fructosyl transferase). In this study, we have generated sugarcane transgenics with gene coding for the green fluorescent protein (GFP) fused with the vacuolar-targeting determinants at the N-terminal driven by a strong constitutive promoter (Port ubi882) and demonstrated the targeting of GFP to the vacuoles. In addition, we have also generated transgenics with His-tagged β-glucuronidase (GUS) and aprotinin targeted to the lytic vacuole, and these two proteins were isolated and purified from the transgenic sugarcane and compared with commercially available protein samples. Our studies have demonstrated that the novel vacuolar-targeting determinant could localize recombinant proteins (r-proteins) to the vacuole in high concentrations and such targeted r-proteins can be purified from the juice with a few simple steps.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Divya P Syamaladevi
- Sugarcane Breeding Institute (ICAR-SBI), Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
- Indian Institute of Rice Research (ICAR-IIRR), Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | | | - Anna Philip
- Sugarcane Breeding Institute (ICAR-SBI), Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
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Sperschneider J, Dodds PN, Gardiner DM, Manners JM, Singh KB, Taylor JM. Advances and challenges in computational prediction of effectors from plant pathogenic fungi. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004806. [PMID: 26020524 PMCID: PMC4447458 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Sperschneider
- CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Centre for Environment and Life Sciences, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Peter N. Dodds
- CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Black Mountain Laboratories, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Donald M. Gardiner
- CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - John M. Manners
- CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Black Mountain Laboratories, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Karam B. Singh
- CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Centre for Environment and Life Sciences, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- University of Western Australia Institute of Agriculture, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jennifer M. Taylor
- CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Black Mountain Laboratories, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
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de Jonge R, Bolton MD, Kombrink A, van den Berg GCM, Yadeta KA, Thomma BPHJ. Extensive chromosomal reshuffling drives evolution of virulence in an asexual pathogen. Genome Res 2013; 23:1271-82. [PMID: 23685541 PMCID: PMC3730101 DOI: 10.1101/gr.152660.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Sexual recombination drives genetic diversity in eukaryotic genomes and fosters adaptation to novel environmental challenges. Although strictly asexual microorganisms are often considered as evolutionary dead ends, they comprise many devastating plant pathogens. Presently, it remains unknown how such asexual pathogens generate the genetic variation that is required for quick adaptation and evolution in the arms race with their hosts. Here, we show that extensive chromosomal rearrangements in the strictly asexual plant pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae establish highly dynamic lineage-specific (LS) genomic regions that act as a source for genetic variation to mediate aggressiveness. We show that such LS regions are greatly enriched for in planta-expressed effector genes encoding secreted proteins that enable host colonization. The LS regions occur at the flanks of chromosomal breakpoints and are enriched for retrotransposons and other repetitive sequence elements. Our results suggest that asexual pathogens may evolve by prompting chromosomal rearrangements, enabling rapid development of novel effector genes. Likely, chromosomal reshuffling can act as a general mechanism for adaptation in asexually propagating organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronnie de Jonge
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
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