Sex Hormones and Lung Inflammation

Progesterone suppresses rhinovirus-induced airway inflammation by inhibiting neutrophil infiltration and extracellular traps formation

BACKGROUND

The process of NETosis is observed in a range of inflammatory conditions. Progesterone (P4) has been shown to alleviate inflammation caused by viral infections such as influenza and SARS-CoV-2. However, the precise molecular mechanisms responsible for this effect are not yet fully understood. Therefore, the present investigation aims to explore whether P4 can exert its anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting NETosis and the related molecular pathways.

METHODS

Airway inflammation caused by rhinovirus serotype-1b (RV-1b) was induced in male BALB/c mice. The inflammation was assessed through histological examination and calculation of inflammatory cells present in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Flow cytometry was used to analyze the inflammatory cells and NETotic neutrophils. Western blotting analysis was conducted to detect proteins associated with NETosis, inflammasome activation, and signaling. Furthermore, confocal microscopy was utilized to observe neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) structures in vivo tissues and in vitro neutrophils, neutrophil infiltration, and inflammasome formation.

RESULTS

The administration of P4 proved to be an effective treatment for reducing airway inflammation and the production of NETs caused by RV-1b infection. The infection triggered the activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes in neutrophils, which led to the maturation of IL-1β and subsequent activation of both the NF-κB and p38 signaling pathways. The activation of NF-κB signaling resulted in the secretion of downstream chemokines CCL3 and IL-6, which led to an increase in neutrophil infiltration into the lung airways. Moreover, the activation of p38 signaling led to the generation of reactive oxygen species, resulting in NETosis. However, the administration of P4 inhibited the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, which subsequently led to the deactivation of both the IL-1β-NF-κB and IL-1β-p38 axes. As a result, there was a reduction in neutrophil infiltration and NETosis. Furthermore, TGF-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) was identified as an intermediary enzyme. P4 inhibits both the NF-κB and IL-1β-p38 pathways by suppressing the activity of TAK1.

CONCLUSION

The capacity of P4 to mitigate rhinovirus-induced airway inflammation is attributed to its ability to impede the infiltration of neutrophils and NETosis. As inflammation mediated by NETosis is widespread in diverse disorders, our findings propose that P4 could potentially function as a universal therapeutic agent in the management of such ailments.

COPD-Like Phenotypes in TBC-Treated Mice Can be Effectively Alleviated via Estrogen Supplement

Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) isocyanurate (TBC), recognized as an endocrine disruptor, can cause inflammatory injury to the lung tissue of mice. To investigate the specific respiratory effects of TBC, male C57BL/6J mice were administered a daily dose of 20 mg/kg of TBC over 14 days. Postexposure, these mice developed chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)-like symptoms characterized by inflammatory lung damage and functional impairment. In light of the antiestrogenic properties of TBC, we administrated estradiol (E2) to investigate its potential protective role against TBC-induced damage and found that the coexposure of E2 notably mitigated the COPD-like phenotypes. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that TBC exposure reduced estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) expression and increased nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) expression, while E2 treatment rebalanced the expression levels of ERα and NF-κB to their normative states. Our findings indicate that TBC, as an antiestrogenic agent, may contribute to the pathogenesis of COPD through an ERα-mediated inflammatory pathway, but that E2 treatment could reverse the impairment, providing a potentially promising remedial treatment. Given the lung status as a primary target of air pollution, the presence of antiestrogenic compounds like TBC in atmospheric particulates presents a significant concern, with the potential to exacerbate respiratory conditions such as COPD and pneumonia.

Sex Hormones and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Cross-Sectional Study and Mendelian Randomization Analysis

Background

Sex steroid hormones, including testosterone and estradiol, play significant roles in various aspects of pulmonary health and diseases. However, although there were a few studies trying to link sex hormones with COPD, their effect remained limited due to small sample size and insufficient causal results. This study aims to investigate the association between sex hormones and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) database and evaluate causality via a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR).

Methods

Data from NHANES 2013-2016 were enrolled for the cross-sectional study. The association between sex hormones and COPD was evaluated via multivariable logistic regression. Sex-stratified analysis, subgroup analyses and interaction tests were performed to further evaluate the correlation. For MR analysis, data were collected from genome-wide association studies and FinnGen datasets. The inverse-variance-weighted (IVW) approach, along with four other approaches, was applied in the analysis. Further sensitivity analysis was conducted to assess the existence of pleiotropy and heterogeneity.

Results

7,617 eligible participants were enrolled in the cross-sectional analysis. Negative associations were observed in both testosterone-COPD (OR 0.770, 95% CI 0.626, 0.948, p = 0.018) and estradiol-COPD (OR 0.794, 95% CI 0.688, 0.915, p = 0.005) relationships after covariate adjustments. However, the results from IVW-MR analysis showed that no causal relationship was observed in either the testosterone-COPD (OR 0.83, 95% CI 0.53, 1.29, p = 0.407) or estradiol-COPD (OR 0.74, 95% CI 0.23, 2.38, p = 0.616) relationship, which was also supported by the other four approaches (all p values > 0.05).

Conclusion

Although a significant negative association was observed between sex hormones and COPD, the results of MR analysis did not support the causality of this relationship. Our study suggested that sex hormones may indirectly rather than directly affect the development of COPD via potential covariates, which warranted further investigations.

Associations Between Sex-Specific Reproductive Factors and Risk of New-Onset Lung Cancer Among Female Patients

BACKGROUND

Several characteristics distinguish lung cancer in female patients from that in male patients, with adenocarcinoma being more prevalent in female patients and occurring more frequently in female patients who do not smoke. Uncertainty surrounds the relationship between female-specific reproductive factors and lung cancer risk.

RESEARCH QUESTION

Are sex-specific reproductive factors associated with risk of lung cancer in different genetic risk groups and histologic types?

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

A Cox proportional hazard model was used to evaluate the association between multiple reproductive factors and the risk of lung cancer developing in a prospective cohort study involving 273,190 female individuals from the UK Biobank. Subgroup analyses stratified by age, smoking status, BMI, genetic risk, and histologic subtype were conducted to emphasize the modification effects further.

RESULTS

A total of 1,182 cases of lung cancer in female patients were recorded over a median follow-up period of 12.0 years in the cohort study. In multivariable-adjusted models, early menarche (age ≤ 11 years: hazard ratio [HR], 1.22; 95% CI, 1.03-1.46), early menopause (age ≤ 46 years: HR, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.19-1.86), a shorter reproductive span (≤ 32 years: HR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.18-1.71; and 33-35 years: HR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.00-1.53), and early age at first birth (age ≤ 20 years: HR, 1.63; 95% CI, 1.33-2.01) were associated with a higher risk of lung cancer. Stratified analysis revealed that several reproductive factors, including early age at menopause, shortened reproductive span, and early age at first birth, showed a substantially stronger relationship with an elevated risk of lung cancer, particularly of lung adenocarcinoma, in populations with high genetic risk and more detrimental behaviors.

INTERPRETATION

Early age at menopause, a shortened reproductive life span, and early age at first birth were associated with higher risks of lung cancer, particularly of lung adenocarcinoma, in a subpopulation with higher genetic susceptibility and detrimental behaviors. The evidence provided by this study emphasizes the significance of screening for multiple reproductive factors to prevent lung cancer among female individuals.

Lung proinflammatory microRNA and cytokine expression in a mouse model of allergic inflammation: role of sex chromosome complement and gonadal hormones

Epigenetic alterations such as dysregulation of miRNAs have been reported to play important roles in interactions between genetic and environmental factors. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that induction of lung inflammation by inhaled allergens triggers a sex-specific miRNA regulation that is dependent on chromosome complement and hormonal milieu. We challenged the four core genotypes (FCGs) model through intranasal sensitization with a house dust mite (HDM) solution (or PBS as a control) for 5 wk. The FCG model allows four combinations of gonads and sex chromosomes: 1) XX mice with ovaries (XXF), 2) XY mice with testes (XYM), 3) XX mice with testes (XXM), and 4) XY mice with ovaries (XYF). Following the challenge (n = 5-7/group), we assessed the expression of 84 inflammatory miRNAs in lung tissue using a PCR array and cytokine levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) by a multiplex protein assay (n = 4-7 animals/group). Our results showed higher levels of the chemokine KC (an Il-8 homolog) and IL-7 in BAL from XYF mice challenged with HDM. In addition, IL-17A was significantly higher in BAL from both XXF and XYF mice. A three-way interaction among treatment, gonads, and sex chromosome revealed 60 of 64 miRNAs that differed in expression depending on genotype; XXF, XXM, XYF, and XYM mice had 45, 32, 4, and 52 differentially expressed miRNAs, respectively. Regulatory networks of miRNAs identified in this study were implicated in pathways associated with asthma. Female gonadal hormonal effects may alter miRNA expression and contribute to the higher susceptibility of females to asthma.NEW & NOTEWORTHY miRNAs play important roles in regulating gene and environmental interactions. However, their role in mediating sex differences in allergic responses and lung diseases has not been elucidated. Our study used a targeted omics approach to characterize the contributions of gonadal hormones and chromosomal components to lung responses to an allergen challenge. Our results point to the influence of sex hormones in miRNA expression and proinflammatory markers in allergic airway inflammation.

Tumor-associated macrophages as a potential therapeutic target in thyroid cancers

Macrophages are important precursor cell types of the innate immune system and bridge adaptive immune responses through the antigen presentation system. Meanwhile, macrophages constitute substantial portion of the stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) (referred to as tumor-associated macrophages, or TAMs) and exhibit conflicting roles in the development, invasion, and metastasis of thyroid cancer (TC). Moreover, TAMs play a crucial role to the behavior of TC due to their high degree of infiltration and prognostic relevance. Generally, TAMs can be divided into two subgroups; M1-like TAMs are capable of directly kill tumor cells, and recruiting and activating other immune cells in the early stages of cancer. However, due to changes in the TME, M2-like TAMs gradually increase and promote tumor progression. This review aims to discuss the impact of TAMs on TC, including their role in tumor promotion, gene mutation, and other factors related to the polarization of TAMs. Finally, we will explore the M2-like TAM-centered therapeutic strategies, including chemotherapy, clinical trials, and combinatorial immunotherapy.

Association between systemic immune-inflammation index and metabolic syndrome and its components: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2016

BACKGROUND

Metabolic syndrome (MetS), a worldwide public health problem, affects human health and quality of life in a dramatic manner. A growing evidence base suggests that MetS is strongly associated with levels of systemic immune inflammation. The present study aimed to investigate the possible relationship between the systemic immune-inflammation index (SII), a novel inflammatory marker, and MetS to provide data support for effective MetS prevention by reducing the systemic inflammatory response.

METHODS

We included adult participants with complete SII and MetS information from the 2011-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). MetS was defined as using the criteria developed by the Adult Treatment Program III of the National Cholesterol Education Program. The formula for SII was as follows: SII = platelet counts × neutrophil counts/ lymphocyte counts. Weighted linear regression was used to assess differences in variables across SII quartile groups after the SII score was divided into 4 quartiles. The independent interaction between SII and MetS was investigated using weighted multivariate logistic regression analysis and subgroup analysis, and the relationship between SII levels and 5 particular MetS items was further explored in depth.

RESULTS

A total of 12,402 participants, 3,489 of whom were diagnosed with MetS, were included in this study. After correcting for covariates, the results of a logistic regression of multistage weighted complex sampling data revealed that participants with higher SII scores had a higher chance of developing MetS (odds ratio (OR) = 1.33, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14-1.55) and that SII levels could be used as an independent risk factor to predict that likelihood of MetS onset. In the Q1-Q4 SII quartile group, the risk of developing MetS was 1.33 times higher in the Q4 group, which had the highest level of systemic immune inflammation than in the Q1 group. After adjusting for all confounding factors, SII scores were found to have a negative correlation with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (OR = 1.29; 95% CI, 0.99-1.67, P = 0.056) and a significant positive correlation with waist circumference (OR = 2.17; 95% CI, 1.65-2.87, P < 0.001) and blood pressure (BP) (OR = 1.65; 95% CI, 1.20-2.27, P = 0.003). Gender, age, and smoking status were shown to alter the positive association between SII and MetS in subgroup analyses and interaction tests (p for interaction < 0.05). Additionally, we demonstrated a nonlinear correlation between SII and MetS. The findings of the restricted cubic spline indicated that there was an inverted U-shaped association between SII and MetS.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings imply that increased SII levels are related to MetS, and SII may be a simple and cost-effective method to identify individuals with MetS. Therefore, protective measures such as early investigation and anti-inflammatory interventions are necessary to reduce the overall incidence of MetS.

Associations Between Reproductive Factors and the Risk of Adult-Onset Asthma: A Prospective Cohort Study of European Ancestry

BACKGROUND

Multiple studies showed sex discrepancies in the prevalence, incidence, and disease control of asthma. The relationships between different reproductive factors and the risk of asthma in females remain uncertain.

DESIGN

A prospective cohort study recruited 239,701 female participants from the UK Biobank. The Cox proportional hazard model and multiple adjusted restricted cubic splines were used to evaluate the association between each reproductive factor and the risk of adult-onset asthma.

KEY RESULTS

We observed that the association of age at menarche and age of menopause with adult-onset asthma risk presented as U-shaped, with multiple adjusted HRs for age at menarche being 1.129 (95% CI, 1.038-1.228) for ≤ 11 years old and 1.157 (95% CI, 1.058-1.265) for ≥ 15 years old referenced to 13 years old, and for age at menopause being 1.368 (1.237-1.512) for ≤ 46 years old and 1.152 (1.026-1.294) for ≥ 55 years old referenced to 50-52 years old. Early age at first live birth (≤ 20 years old), a greater number of miscarriages (≥ 2) or stillbirths (≥ 2), more children (≥ 4), and shorter reproductive years (≤ 32 years) were associated with elevated risk of asthma. In addition, history of hysterectomy or oophorectomy was associated with increased risk of adult-onset asthma, particularly in those with simultaneous hysterectomy and oophorectomy (HR, 1.239; 95% CI, 1.063-1.445). For exogenous sex hormones, hormone replacement therapy (HR, 1.482; 95% CI, 1.394-1.574) was identified to be associated with elevated risk of adult-onset asthma.

CONCLUSIONS

This study not only demonstrated significant associations between multiple reproductive factors and the risk of adult-onset asthma in a female's later life, but also found that history of hysterectomy or oophorectomy, as well as hormone replacement therapy, was linked to an elevated incidence of adult-onset asthma. Our findings highlighted the significance of reproductive factors in the development of asthma in female populations.

Dihydrotestosterone mediates the inflammation effect under lipopolysaccharides in bovine endometrial epithelial cells via AR blockading TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway

Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) is a potent nonaromatizable 5α-reduced androgen with both positive and negative effect on inflammation process. However, it remains unknown whether DHT can regulate Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced inflammation in bovine endometrial epithelial cells (bEECs). Here, we demonstrated that the DHT biosynthesis ability and androgen receptors (AR) expression is defective in bovine endometrial with endometritis, which aggravates endometrial inflammation. In vitro study, we established a LPS-induced inflammation model in bEECs, and found that DHT inhibited the TLR4 and MyD88 protein as well as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA of bEECs in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, the anti-inflammation effect of DHT was blocked by AR inhibitor flutamide. Together, we demonstrated that supplementing DHT can alleviate the inflammation response of bEECs caused by LPS, which is associated with AR regulating the inhibition of TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway.

Effects of Obesity and Calorie Restriction on Cancer Development

The risk of malignant tumor development is increasing in the world. Obesity is an established risk factor for various malignancies. There are many metabolic alterations associated with obesity which promote cancerogenesis. Excessive body weight leads to increased levels of estrogens, chronic inflammation and hypoxia, which can play an important role in the development of malignancies. It is proved that calorie restriction can improve the state of patients with various diseases. Decreased calorie uptake influences lipid, carbohydrate and protein metabolism, hormone levels and cell processes. Many investigations have been devoted to the effects of calorie restriction on cancer development in vitro and in vivo. It was revealed that fasting can regulate the activity of the signal cascades including AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), p53, mTOR, insulin/ insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) and JAK-STAT. Up- or down-regulation of the pathways results in the decrease of cancer cell proliferation, migration and survival and the increase of apoptosis and effects of chemotherapy. The aim of this review is to discuss the connection between obesity and cancer development and the mechanisms of calorie restriction influence on cancerogenesis that stress the importance of further research of calorie restriction effects for the inclusion of this approach in clinical practice.

Systematic analysis between inflammation-related index and sex hormones in American adults: cross-sectional research based NHANES 2013-2016

Background

A series of novel inflammation-related indexes has been confirmed to be efficient indicators of human immune and inflammatory status, with great potential as predictors for a variety of diseases. However, the association between inflammation-related indexes and sex hormones in the general population remained uncertain.

Methods

We incorporated data from the NHANES 2013-2016 survey of American adults. On the basis of distribution and comparison analysis, we chose to undertake separate analyses of men and women (including premenopausal and postmenopausal groups). Multivariable weighted linear regression models, eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) models, generalized linear analysis, stratified models, logistic regression models and sensitivity analysis were utilized to assess the relationships between inflammation-related indexes and sex hormones.

Results

Total 9372 participants out of 20146 were fitted into our research. We conducted separate gender analysis due to different distribution. Multivariable weighted linear regression indicated every component of the inflammation-related index was negatively correlated with at least one component of the male hormone indexes. However, SII, NLR, PPN, and NC were associated positively with female estradiol. XGBoost identify SII, PLR and NLR were the critical indexes on sex hormones. Inflammation-related indexes was associated with Testosterone deficiency in male and postmenstrual group and associated with Excessive Estradiol in premenstrual group. Finally, the subgroup analysis revealed that the association between sex hormones and inflammatory indicators was prominent in American adults over the age of 60 or those with BMI (>28 kg/m²).

Conclusion

In all, inflammation-related indexes act as independent risks associated with sex hormone alterations and metabolic disorder in both genders. Using multiple models, we revealed the relative importance of inflammation-related indexes. Subgroup analysis also identified the high-risk population. More prospective and experimental research should be conducted to validate the results.

Theophylline-Induced Relaxation Is Enhanced after Testosterone Treatment via Increased KV1.2 and KV1.5 Protein Expression in Guinea Pig Tracheal Smooth Muscle

Theophylline is a drug commonly used to treat asthma due to its anti-inflammatory and bronchodilatory properties. Testosterone (TES) has been suggested to reduce the severity of asthma symptoms. This condition affects boys more than girls in childhood, and this ratio reverses at puberty. We reported that guinea pig tracheal tissue chronic exposure to TES increases the expression of β₂-adrenoreceptors and enhances salbutamol-induced K⁺ currents (IK⁺). Herein, we investigated whether the upregulation of K⁺ channels can enhance the relaxation response to methylxanthines, including theophylline. Chronic incubation of guinea pig tracheas with TES (40 nM, 48 h) enhanced the relaxation induced by caffeine, isobutylmethylxanthine, and theophylline, an effect that was abolished by tetraethylammonium. In tracheal myocytes, chronic incubation with TES increased theophylline-induced IK⁺; flutamide reversed this effect. The increase in IK⁺ was blocked by 4-aminopyridine by ~82%, whereas iberiotoxin reduced IK⁺ by ~17%. Immunofluorescence studies showed that chronic TES exposure increased the expression of K_V1.2 and K_V1.5 in airway smooth muscle (ASM). In conclusion, chronic exposure to TES in guinea pig ASM promotes upregulation of K_V1.2 and K_V1.5 and enhances theophylline relaxation response. Therefore, gender should be considered when prescribing methylxanthines, as teenage boys and males are likely to respond better than females.

Role of ryanodine receptor 2 and FK506-binding protein 12.6 dissociation in pulmonary hypertension

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a devastating disease characterized by a progressive increase in pulmonary arterial pressure leading to right ventricular failure and death. A major cellular response in this disease is the contraction of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) of the pulmonary vasculature. Cell contraction is determined by the increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i), which is generated and regulated by various ion channels. Several studies by us and others have shown that ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2), a Ca2+-releasing channel in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), is an essential ion channel for the control of [Ca2+]i in pulmonary artery SMCs (PASMCs), thereby mediating the sustained vasoconstriction seen in PH. FK506-binding protein 12.6 (FKBP12.6) strongly associates with RyR2 to stabilize its functional activity. FKBP12.6 can be dissociated from RyR2 by a hypoxic stimulus to increase channel function and Ca2+ release, leading to pulmonary vasoconstriction and PH. More specifically, dissociation of the RyR2-FKBP12.6 complex is a consequence of increased mitochondrial ROS generation mediated by the Rieske iron-sulfur protein (RISP) at the mitochondrial complex III after hypoxia. Overall, RyR2/FKBP12.6 dissociation and the corresponding signaling pathway may be an important factor in the development of PH. Novel drugs and biologics targeting RyR2, FKBP12.6, and related molecules may become unique effective therapeutics for PH.

Matrine Attenuates Lung Injury by Modulating Macrophage Polarization and Suppressing Apoptosis

INTRODUCTION

Persistent lung inflammation is a characteristic of sepsis-induced lung injury. Matrine, the active ingredient from Sophora flavescens, has exhibited anti-inflammatory activities. This study investigated the effects of prophylactic administration of matrine on macrophage polarization, apoptosis, and tissue injury in a cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced murine lung injury model.

METHODS

Mice were randomly allocated into four groups: Sham, CLP, Sham + Matrine, and CLP + Matrine. Lung tissues were collected at 24 h post-CLP. Histopathology and immunofluorescence analysis were performed to evaluate lung injury and macrophage infiltration in the lung, respectively. Caspase-3 activities, TUNEL staining, and anti-apoptotic proteins were examined to assess apoptosis. To determine the mechanism of action of matrine, protein levels of Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), p53 and the messenger RNA levels of p53-mediated proapoptotic genes were examined to elucidate the associated signaling pathways.

RESULTS

Histopathological evaluation showed that matrine prophylaxis attenuated sepsis-induced lung injury. Matrine prophylaxis attenuated sepsis-induced infiltration of the total population of macrophages in the lung. Matrine inhibited M1 macrophage infiltration, but increased M2 macrophage infiltration, thus resulting in a decrease in the proportion of M1 to M2 macrophages in septic lung. Sepsis-induced lung injury was associated with apoptotic cell death as evidenced by increases in caspase-3 activity, TUNEL-positive cells, and decreases in antiapoptotic proteins, all of which were reversed by matrine prophylaxis. Matrine restored sepsis-induced downregulation of SIRT1 and deacetylation of NF-κB p65 subunit and p53, thus inactivating NF-κB pathway and suppressing p53-induced proapoptotic pathway in septic lung.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, this study demonstrated that matrine exhibited pro-M2 macrophage polarization and antiapoptotic effects in sepsis-induced lung injury, which might be, at least partly, due to the modulation of SIRT1/NF-κB and SIRT1/p53 pathways.

Modulation of the Inflammatory Response in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)-Searching for Epigenetic Factors

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. Despite its incidence, the syndrome is poorly understood and remains underdiagnosed, and female patients are diagnosed with a delay. The heterogenous nature of this complex disorder results from the combined occurrence of genetic, environmental, endocrine, and behavioral factors. Primary clinical manifestations of PCOS are derived from the excess of androgens (anovulation, polycystic ovary morphology, lack of or scanty, irregular menstrual periods, acne and hirsutism), whereas the secondary manifestations include multiple metabolic, cardiovascular, and psychological disorders. Dietary and lifestyle factors play important roles in the development and course of PCOS, which suggests strong epigenetic and environmental influences. Many studies have shown a strong association between PCOS and chronic, low-grade inflammation both in the ovarian tissue and throughout the body. In the vast majority of PCOS patients, elevated values of inflammatory markers or their gene markers have been reported. Development of the vicious cycle of the chronic inflammatory state in PCOS is additionally stimulated by hyperinsulinemia and obesity. Changes in DNA methylation, histone acetylation and noncoding RNA levels are presented in this review in the context of oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species, and inflammatory signaling in PCOS. Epigenetic modulation of androgenic activity in response to inflammatory signaling is also discussed.

Sex Steroids Effects on Asthma: A Network Perspective of Immune and Airway Cells

A multitude of evidence has suggested the differential incidence, prevalence and severity of asthma between males and females. A compilation of recent literature recognized sex differences as a significant non-modifiable risk factor in asthma pathogenesis. Understanding the cellular and mechanistic basis of sex differences remains complex and the pivotal point of this ever elusive quest, which remains to be clarified in the current scenario. Sex steroids are an integral part of human development and evolution while also playing a critical role in the conditioning of the immune system and thereby influencing the function of peripheral organs. Classical perspectives suggest a pre-defined effect of sex steroids, generalizing estrogens popularly under the “estrogen paradox” due to conflicting reports associating estrogen with a pro- and anti-inflammatory role. On the other hand, androgens are classified as “anti-inflammatory,” serving a protective role in mitigating inflammation. Although considered mainstream and simplistic, this observation remains valid for numerous reasons, as elaborated in the current review. Women appear immune-favored with stronger and more responsive immune elements than men. However, the remarkable female predominance of diverse autoimmune and allergic diseases contradicts this observation suggesting that hormonal differences between the sexes might modulate the normal and dysfunctional regulation of the immune system. This review illustrates the potential relationship between key elements of the immune cell system and their interplay with sex steroids, relevant to structural cells in the pathophysiology of asthma and many other lung diseases. Here, we discuss established and emerging paradigms in the clarification of observed sex differences in asthma in the context of the immune system, which will deepen our understanding of asthma etiopathology.

Potential of Endogenous Oxytocin in Endocrine Treatment and Prevention of COVID-19

Coronavirus disease 2019 or COVID-19 caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a significant threat to the health of human beings. While wearing mask, maintaining social distance and performing self-quarantine can reduce virus spreading passively, vaccination actively enhances immune defense against COVID-19. However, mutations of SARS-CoV-2 and presence of asymptomatic carriers frustrate the effort of completely conquering COVID-19. A strategy that can reduce the susceptibility and thus prevent COVID-19 while blocking viral invasion and pathogenesis independent of viral antigen stability is highly desirable. In the pathogenesis of COVID-19, endocrine disorders have been implicated. Correspondingly, many hormones have been identified to possess therapeutic potential of treating COVID-19, such as estrogen, melatonin, corticosteroids, thyroid hormone and oxytocin. Among them, oxytocin has the potential of both treatment and prevention of COVID-19. This is based on oxytocin promotion of immune-metabolic homeostasis, suppression of inflammation and pre-existing comorbidities, acceleration of damage repair, and reduction of individuals' susceptibility to pathogen infection. Oxytocin may specifically inactivate SARS-COV-2 spike protein and block viral entry into cells via angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 by suppressing serine protease and increasing interferon levels and number of T-lymphocytes. In addition, oxytocin can promote parasympathetic outflow and the secretion of body fluids that could dilute and even inactivate SARS-CoV-2 on the surface of cornea, oral cavity and gastrointestinal tract. What we need to do now is clinical trials. Such trials should fully balance the advantages and disadvantages of oxytocin application, consider the time- and dose-dependency of oxytocin effects, optimize the dosage form and administration approach, combine oxytocin with inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 replication, apply specific passive immunization, and timely utilize efficient vaccines. Meanwhile, blocking COVID-19 transmission chain and developing other efficient anti-SARS-CoV-2 drugs are also important. In addition, relative to the complex issues with drug applications over a long term, oxytocin can be mobilized through many physiological stimuli, and thus used as a general prevention measure. In this review, we explore the potential of oxytocin for treatment and prevention of COVID-19 and perhaps other similar pathogens.

Estrogens, Cancer and Immunity

Sex hormones are included in many physiological and pathological pathways. Estrogens belong to steroid hormones active in female sex. Estradiol (E2) is the strongest female sex hormone and, with its receptors, contributes to oncogenesis, cancer progression and response to treatment. In recent years, a role of immunosurveillance and suppression of immune response in malignancy has been well defined, forming the basis for cancer immunotherapy. The interplay of sex hormones with cancer immunity, as well as the response to immune checkpoint inhibitors, is of interest. In this review, we investigate the impact of sex hormones on natural immune response with respect to main active elements in anticancer immune surveillance: dendritic cells, macrophages, lymphocytes and checkpoint molecules. We describe the main sex-dependent tumors and the contribution of estrogen in their progression, response to treatment and especially modulation of anticancer immune response.

Sex, Allergic Diseases and Omalizumab

Gender differences are increasingly emerging in every area of medicine including drug therapy; however, specific gender-targeted studies are infrequent. Sex is a fundamental variable, which cannot be neglected. When optimizing therapies, gender pharmacology must always be considered in order to improve the effectiveness and safety of the use of drugs. Knowledge of gender differences promotes appropriate use of therapies and greater health protection for both genders. Further development of gender research would make it possible to report on differences in the assimilation and response of the female organism as compared to the male, in order to identify potential risks and benefits that can be found between genders. Furthermore, a better understanding of sex/gender-related influences, with regard to pharmacological activity, would allow the development of personalized “tailor-made” medicines. Here, we summarize the state of knowledge on the role of sex in several allergic diseases and their treatment with omalizumab, the first biologic drug authorized for use in the field of allergology.

Testosterone in males with COVID-19: A 7-month cohort study

Background

Circulating testosterone levels have been found to be reduced in men with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection, COVID‐19, with lower levels being associated with more severe clinical outcomes.

Objectives

We aimed to assess total testosterone levels and the prevalence of total testosterone still suggesting for hypogonadism at 7‐month follow‐up in a cohort of 121 men who recovered from laboratory‐confirmed COVID‐19.

Materials and methods

Demographic, clinical, and hormonal values were collected for all patients. Hypogonadism was defined as total testosterone ≤9.2 nmol/L. The Charlson Comorbidity Index was used to score health‐significant comorbidities. Descriptive statistics and multivariable linear and logistic regression models tested the association between clinical and laboratory variables and total testosterone levels at follow‐up assessment.

Results

Circulating total testosterone levels increased at 7‐month follow‐up compared to hospital admittance (p < 0.0001), while luteinizing hormone and 17β‐estradiol levels significantly decreased (all p ≤ 0.02). Overall, total testosterone levels increased in 106 (87.6%) patients, but further decreased in 12 (9.9%) patients at follow‐up, where a total testosterone level suggestive for hypogonadism was still observed in 66 (55%) patients. Baseline Charlson Comorbidity Index score (OR 0.36; p = 0.03 [0.14, 0.89]) was independently associated with total testosterone levels at 7‐month follow‐up, after adjusting for age, BMI, and IL‐6 at hospital admittance.

Conclusions

Although total testosterone levels increased over time after COVID‐19, more than 50% of men who recovered from the disease still had circulating testosterone levels suggestive for a condition of hypogonadism at 7‐month follow‐up. In as many as 10% of cases, testosterone levels even further decreased. Of clinical relevance, the higher the burden of comorbid conditions at presentation, the lower the probability of testosterone levels recovery over time.

Sex-specific differences in plasma levels of FXII, HK, and FXIIa-C1-esterase inhibitor complexes in community acquired pneumonia

Sex-dependent differences in immunity and coagulation play an active role in the outcome of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Contact phase proteins act at the crossroads between inflammation and coagulation thus representing a point of convergence in host defense against infection. Here, we measured the levels of factor XII (FXII), FXIIa-C1 esterase inhibitor (C1INH) complexes, and high molecular weight kininogen (HK) in plasma of CAP patients and correlated them to clinical disease severity. Levels of FXIIa-C1INH/albumin ratio were elevated, irrespective of sex, in plasma of CAP patients (n=139) as compared to age-matched donors (n=58). No simultaneous decrease in FXII levels, indicating its consumption, was observed. Stratification by sex revealed augmented FXII levels in plasma of CAP women as compared to sex-matched donors yet no apparent differences in men. This sex-specific effect was, however, attributable to lower FXII levels in female donors relative to men donors. Plasma estradiol levels mirrored those for FXII. Levels of HK/albumin ratio were decreased in CAP plasma as compared to donors, however, after stratification by sex, this difference was only observed in women and was related to higher HK/albumin values in female donors as opposed to male donors. Finally, strong negative correlation between plasma levels of HK/albumin ratio and CAP severity, as assessed by CRB65 score, in males and females was observed. Our study identifies sex-dependent differences in plasma levels of the contact phase proteins in elderly subjects that may contribute to specific clinical outcomes in CAP between men and women.