Guggulsterone and Its Role in Chronic Diseases

Astrocyte modulation in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury: A promising therapeutic strategy

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) poses significant challenges for drug development due to its complex pathogenesis. Astrocyte involvement in CIRI pathogenesis has led to the development of novel astrocyte-targeting drug strategies. To comprehensively review the current literature, we conducted a thorough analysis from January 2012 to December 2023, identifying 82 drugs aimed at preventing and treating CIRI. These drugs target astrocytes to exert potential benefits in CIRI, and their primary actions include modulation of relevant signaling pathways to inhibit neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, reduce cerebral edema, restore blood-brain barrier integrity, suppress excitotoxicity, and regulate autophagy. Notably, active components from traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) such as Salvia miltiorrhiza, Ginkgo, and Ginseng exhibit these important pharmacological properties and show promise in the treatment of CIRI. This review highlights the potential of astrocyte-targeted drugs to ameliorate CIRI and categorizes them based on their mechanisms of action, underscoring their therapeutic potential in targeting astrocytes.

Elemental Profiling of Common Anti-diabetic Medicinal Plants of Swat and Peshawar Districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) Province of Pakistan: An Investigation Using PIXE and ICP-OES

The use of medicinal plants is integral to addressing liver, heart, lung, and other metabolic issues. These plants are rich in vitamins, minerals, flavonoids, and alkaloids, which collectively help in lowering intestinal glucose absorption and increasing insulin secretion by pancreatic tissues. Elemental analysis, encompassing major, minor, and trace elements, was performed on various parts (leaves, roots, and seeds) of 16 anti-diabetic medicinal plants collected from different regions of Swat and Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Pakistan. This analysis utilized proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) techniques. Our PIXE and ICP-OES analysis revealed the presence of major (Ca, K, S, P), minor (Si, Cl), and trace (Al, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Cr, and Sc) elements in various parts (leaves, roots, and seeds) of the 16 anti-diabetic medicinal plants studied. Specifically, elements such as Ca, K, Cr, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Se were detected, all of which are known to contribute in maintaining normal glucose metabolism. Notably, Zn and Se are crucial trace elements for the synthesis, secretion, and action of insulin. Significant Zn concentrations were observed in ten anti-diabetic medicinal plants: Albizia lebbeck (AL), Atropa acuminata (AA), Avena fatua (AF), Citrus medica (CM), Commiphora wightii (CW), Cymbopogon citratus (CC), Daucus carota (DC), Ziziphus mauritiana (FM), Hyoscyamus niger (HN), and Martynia annua (MA), and significant Se concentrations were observed in twelve medicinal plants, i.e., Albizia lebbeck (AL), Allium sativum (AS), Atropa acuminata (AA), Avena fatua (AF), Cannabis sativa (CS), Capparis spinosa (CaS), Commiphora wightii (CW), Cymbopogon citratus (CC), Datura alba (DA), Daucus carota (DC), Ziziphus mauritiana (FM), and Hyoscyamus niger (HN). Our study's elemental analysis using PIXE and ICP-OES on various parts of 16 medicinal plants identified a significant number of useful elements. Elements such as Ca, K, S, P, Al, Si, Cl, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, and Cr were identified and quantified. These findings support the potential use of these plants in managing diabetes and highlight the importance of elemental profiling in understanding their therapeutic properties.

Oleanolic acid induces hepatic injury by disrupting hepatocyte tight junction and dysregulation of farnesoid X receptor-mediated bile acid efflux transporters

Oleanolic acid (OA) is a naturally occurring pentacyclic triterpene compound that has been reported to cause cholestatic liver injury. However, the regulation and pathogenic role of bile acids in OA-induced development of cholestatic liver injury remains largely unclear. Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a metabolic nuclear receptor that plays an important role in bile acid homeostasis in the liver by regulating efflux transporters bile salt export pump (BSEP) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of OA on hepatocyte tight junction function and determine the role of FXR, BSEP, and MRP2 in the mechanism of impairment of transport of bile acids induced by OA. Both in vivo and in vitro models were used to characterize the OA-induced liver injury. The liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was employed to characterize the efflux function of the transporters, and the results showed that OA caused a blockage of bile acids efflux. OA treatment resulted in decreased expression levels of the tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1 and occludin. Immunofluorescence results showed that OA treatment significantly reduced the number of bile ducts and the immunofluorescence intensity. Pretreatment with agonists of FXR and MRP2, respectively, in animal experiments attenuated OA-induced liver injury, while pretreatment with inhibitors of BSEP and MRP2 further aggravated OA-induced liver injury. These results suggest that OA inhibits FXR-mediated BSEP and MRP2, leading to impaired bile acid efflux and disruption of tight junctions between liver cells, resulting in liver damage.

Integrated analysis of gut microbiome and its metabolites in ACE2-knockout and ACE2-overexpressed mice

Background

Aberrant activation of the classic renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and intestinal micro dysbiosis adversely affect insulin resistance (IR), dyslipidemia, and other metabolic syndrome markers. However, the action of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and gut health in systemic homeostasis vary, and their interaction is not completely understood.

Methods

We adopted a combinatory approach of metabolomics and fecal 16S rRNA analysis to investigate gut microbiota and metabolite in two different mouse models, ACE2 knockout (ACE2 KO) mice and the ACE2-overexpressing obese mice.

Results

16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that ACE2 influences microbial community composition and function, and ACE2 KO mice had increased Deferribacteres, Alcaligenaceae, Parasutterella, Catenibacterium, and Anaerotruncus, with decreased short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria (Marvinbryantia and Alistipes). In contrast, ACE2-overexpressed mice exhibited increased anti-inflammatory probiotic (Oscillospiraceae, Marinifilaceae, and Bifidobacteriaceae) and SCFA-producing microbes (Rikenellaceae, Muribaculaceae, Ruminococcaceae, Odoribacter, and Alistipes) and decreased Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes, Lactobacillaceae, Erysipelotrichaceae, and Lachnospiraceae. Metabolome analysis indicated differential metabolites in ACE2 KO and ACE2-overexpression mice, especially the glucolipid metabolism-related compounds. Furthermore, correlation analysis between gut microbiota and metabolites showed a dynamic mutual influence affecting host health.

Conclusion

Our study confirms for the first time a significant association between ACE2 status and gut microbiome and metabolome profiles, providing a novel mechanism for the positive effect of ACE2 on energy homeostasis.

Farnesoid X receptor promotes non-small cell lung cancer metastasis by activating Jak2/STAT3 signaling via transactivation of IL-6ST and IL-6 genes

Metastasis accounts for the majority of cases of cancer recurrence and death in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Farnesoid X Receptor (FXR) is a bile acid nuclear receptor that was recently found to be upregulated in NSCLC tissues. However, whether and how FXR regulates NSCLC metastasis remains unclear. In the present study, it was found that FXR promoted the migration, invasion, and angiogenic ability of NSCLC cells in vitro, and increased NSCLC metastasis in a mouse model in vivo. Mechanistic investigation demonstrated that FXR specifically bound to the promoters of IL-6ST and IL-6 genes to upregulate their transcription, thereby leading to activation of the Jak2/STAT3 signaling pathway, which facilitated tumor migration, invasion, and angiogenesis in NSCLC. Notably, Z-guggulsterone, a natural FXR inhibitor, significantly reduced FXRhigh NSCLC metastasis, and decreased the expression of FXR, IL-6, IL-6ST, and p-STAT3 in the mouse model. Clinical analysis verified that FXR was positively correlated with IL-6, IL-6ST and p-STAT3 expression in NSCLC patients, and was indicative of a poor prognosis. Collectively, these results highlight a novel FXR-induced IL-6/IL-6ST/Jak2/STAT3 axis in NSCLC metastasis, and a promising therapeutic means for treating FXRhigh metastatic NSCLC.

DendroX: multi-level multi-cluster selection in dendrograms

BACKGROUND

Cluster heatmaps are widely used in biology and other fields to uncover clustering patterns in data matrices. Most cluster heatmap packages provide utility functions to divide the dendrograms at a certain level to obtain clusters, but it is often difficult to locate the appropriate cut in the dendrogram to obtain the clusters seen in the heatmap or computed by a statistical method. Multiple cuts are required if the clusters locate at different levels in the dendrogram.

RESULTS

We developed DendroX, a web app that provides interactive visualization of a dendrogram where users can divide the dendrogram at any level and in any number of clusters and pass the labels of the identified clusters for functional analysis. Helper functions are provided to extract linkage matrices from cluster heatmap objects in R or Python to serve as input to the app. A graphic user interface was also developed to help prepare input files for DendroX from data matrices stored in delimited text files. The app is scalable and has been tested on dendrograms with tens of thousands of leaf nodes. As a case study, we clustered the gene expression signatures of 297 bioactive chemical compounds in the LINCS L1000 dataset and visualized them in DendroX. Seventeen biologically meaningful clusters were identified based on the structure of the dendrogram and the expression patterns in the heatmap. We found that one of the clusters consisting of mostly naturally occurring compounds is not previously reported and has its members sharing broad anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.

CONCLUSIONS

DendroX solves the problem of matching visually and computationally determined clusters in a cluster heatmap and helps users navigate among different parts of a dendrogram. The identification of a cluster of naturally occurring compounds with shared bioactivities implicates a convergence of biological effects through divergent mechanisms.

Pharmacological modulation of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) as a therapeutic strategy for hypercholesterolemia

Despite the availability of many therapeutic options, the prevalence of hypercholesterolemia remains high. There exists a significant unmet medical need for novel drugs and/or treatment combinations to effectively combat hypercholesterolemia while minimizing adverse reactions. The modulation of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) expression via perturbation of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) - dependent pathways, primarily FXR/small heterodimer partner (SHP) and FXR/ fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-19/ fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR)-4 pathways, presents as a potential option to lower cholesterol levels. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the important role that CYP7A1 plays in cholesterol homeostasis and how its expression can be exploited to assert differential control of bile acid synthesis and cholesterol metabolism. Additionally, the paper also summarizes the current therapeutic options for hypercholesterolemia, and positions modulators of CYP7A1 expression, namely FGFR4 inhibitors and FXR antagonists, as emerging and distinct pharmacological agents to complement and diversify the treatment regime. Their mechanistic and clinical considerations are also extensively described to interrogate the benefits and risks associated with using FXR-mediating agents, either singularly or in combination with recognised agents such as statins to target hypercholesterolemia.

Exploring the Promising Role of Guggulipid in Rheumatoid Arthritis Management: An In-depth Analysis

BACKGROUND

Guggulipid, an oleo-gum resin extracted from the bark of Commiphora wightii of the Burseraceae family, holds a significant place in Ayurvedic medicine due to its historical use in treating various disorders, including inflammation, gout, rheumatism, obesity, and lipid metabolism imbalances.

OBJECTIVE

This comprehensive review aims to elucidate the molecular targets of guggulipids and explore their cellular responses. Furthermore, it summarizes the findings from in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical investigations related to arthritis and various inflammatory conditions.

METHODS

A comprehensive survey encompassing in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical studies has been conducted to explore the therapeutic capacity of guggulipid in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Various molecular pathways, such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), PI3-kinase/AKT, JAK/STAT, nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and NFκB signaling pathways, have been targeted to assess the antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of this compound.

RESULTS

The research findings reveal that guggulipid demonstrates notable antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory effects by targeting key molecular pathways involved in inflammatory responses. These pathways include COX-2, VEGF, PI3-kinase/AKT, JAK/STAT, iNOS, and NFκB signaling pathways. in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical studies collectively support the therapeutic potential of guggulipid in managing rheumatoid arthritis and related inflammatory conditions.

CONCLUSION

This review provides a deeper understanding of the therapeutic mechanisms and potential of guggulipid in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. The collective evidence strongly supports the promising role of guggulipid as a therapeutic agent, encouraging further research and development in guggulipid-based treatments for these conditions.

A virtual screening investigation to identify bioactive natural compounds as potential inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinase 9

Cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) is a transcription-associated protein involved in controlling the cell cycle and is often deregulated in stress conditions. CDK9 is being studied as a well-known druggable target for developing effective therapeutics against a wide range of cancer, cardiac dysfunction and inflammatory diseases. Owing to the significance of CDK9 in the etiology of hematological and solid malignancies, its structure, biological activity, regulation and its pharmacological inhibition are being explored for therapeutic management of cancer. We employed a structure-based virtual high-throughput screening of bioactive compounds from the IMPPAT database to discover potential bioactive inhibitors of CDK9. The preliminary results were obtained from the Lipinski criteria, ADMET parameters and sorting compounds without any PAINS patterns. Subsequently, binding affinity and selectivity analyses were used to find effective CDK9 hits. This screening resulted in the identification of two natural compounds, Glabrene and Guggulsterone with high affinity and specificity for the CDK9 binding site. Both compounds exhibit drug-like characteristics, as projected by ADMET analysis, physicochemical data and PASS evaluation. Both compounds preferentially bind to the ATP-binding pocket of CDK9 and interact with functionally important residues. Further, the dynamics and consistency of CDK9 interaction with Glabrene and Guggulsteron were evaluated through all-atom molecular dynamic (MD) simulations which suggested the stability of both complexes. The results might be deployed to introduce novel CDK9 inhibitors that may treat life-threatening diseases, including cancer.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Overview of Ursolic Acid Potential for the Treatment of Metabolic Disorders, Autoimmune Diseases, and Cancers via Nuclear Receptor Pathways

Nuclear receptors (NRs) form a family of druggable transcription factors that are regulated by ligand binding to orchestrate multifaceted physiological functions, including reproduction, immunity, metabolism, and growth. NRs represent attractive and valid targets for the management and treatment of a vast array of ailments. Pentacyclic triterpenes (PTs) are ubiquitously distributed natural products in medicinal and aromatic plants, of which ursolic acid (UA) is an extensively studied member, due to its diverse bio-pertinent activities against different cancers, inflammation, aging, obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and liver injury. In fact, PTs share a common lipophilic structure that resembles NRs' endogenous ligands. Herein, we present a review of the literature on UA's effect on NRs, showcasing the resulting health benefits and potential therapeutic outcomes. De facto, UA exhibited numerous pharmacodynamic effects on PPAR, LXR, FXR, and PXR, resulting in remarkable anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperlipidemic, and hepatoprotective properties, by lowering lipid accumulation in hepatocytes and mitigating non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and its subsequent liver fibrosis. Furthermore, UA reversed valproate and rifampicin-induced hepatic lipid accumulation. Additionally, UA showed great promise for the treatment of autoimmune inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and autoimmune arthritis by antagonizing RORγ. UA exhibited antiproliferative effects against skin, prostate, and breast cancers, partially via PPARα and RORγ pathways. Herein, for the first time, we explore and provide insights into UA bioactivity with respect to NR modulation.

Harnessing Oleanolic Acid and Its Derivatives as Modulators of Metabolic Nuclear Receptors

Nuclear receptors (NRs) constitute a superfamily of ligand-activated transcription factors with a paramount role in ubiquitous physiological functions such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction. Owing to their physiological role and druggability, NRs are deemed attractive and valid targets for medicinal chemists. Pentacyclic triterpenes (PTs) represent one of the most important phytochemical classes present in higher plants, where oleanolic acid (OA) is the most studied PTs representative owing to its multitude of biological activities against cancer, inflammation, diabetes, and liver injury. PTs possess a lipophilic skeleton that imitates the NRs endogenous ligands. Herein, we report a literature overview on the modulation of metabolic NRs by OA and its semi-synthetic derivatives, highlighting their health benefits and potential therapeutic applications. Indeed, OA exhibited varying pharmacological effects on FXR, PPAR, LXR, RXR, PXR, and ROR in a tissue-specific manner. Owing to these NRs modulation, OA showed prominent hepatoprotective properties comparable to ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) in a bile duct ligation mice model and antiatherosclerosis effect as simvastatin in a model of New Zealand white (NZW) rabbits. It also demonstrated a great promise in alleviating non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and liver fibrosis, attenuated alpha-naphthol isothiocyanate (ANIT)-induced cholestatic liver injury, and controlled blood glucose levels, making it a key player in the therapy of metabolic diseases. We also compiled OA semi-synthetic derivatives and explored their synthetic pathways and pharmacological effects on NRs, showcasing their structure-activity relationship (SAR). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review article to highlight OA activity in terms of NRs modulation.

In Silico and In Vitro Identification of P-Glycoprotein Inhibitors from a Library of 375 Phytochemicals

Cancer therapy with clinically established anticancer drugs is frequently hampered by the development of drug resistance of tumors and severe side effects in normal organs and tissues. The demand for powerful, but less toxic, drugs is high. Phytochemicals represent an important reservoir for drug development and frequently exert less toxicity than synthetic drugs. Bioinformatics can accelerate and simplify the highly complex, time-consuming, and expensive drug development process. Here, we analyzed 375 phytochemicals using virtual screenings, molecular docking, and in silico toxicity predictions. Based on these in silico studies, six candidate compounds were further investigated in vitro. Resazurin assays were performed to determine the growth-inhibitory effects towards wild-type CCRF-CEM leukemia cells and their multidrug-resistant, P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-overexpressing subline, CEM/ADR5000. Flow cytometry was used to measure the potential to measure P-gp-mediated doxorubicin transport. Bidwillon A, neobavaisoflavone, coptisine, and z-guggulsterone all showed growth-inhibitory effects and moderate P-gp inhibition, whereas miltirone and chamazulene strongly inhibited tumor cell growth and strongly increased intracellular doxorubicin uptake. Bidwillon A and miltirone were selected for molecular docking to wildtype and mutated P-gp forms in closed and open conformations. The P-gp homology models harbored clinically relevant mutations, i.e., six single missense mutations (F336Y, A718C, Q725A, F728A, M949C, Y953C), three double mutations (Y310A-F728A; F343C-V982C; Y953A-F978A), or one quadruple mutation (Y307C-F728A-Y953A-F978A). The mutants did not show major differences in binding energies compared to wildtypes. Closed P-gp forms generally showed higher binding affinities than open ones. Closed conformations might stabilize the binding, thereby leading to higher binding affinities, while open conformations may favor the release of compounds into the extracellular space. In conclusion, this study described the capability of selected phytochemicals to overcome multidrug resistance.

CXCR4 expression is elevated in TNBC patient derived samples and Z-guggulsterone abrogates tumor progression by targeting CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling axis in mice model

Environmental factors such as exposure to ionizing radiations, certain environmental pollutants, and toxic chemicals are considered as risk factors in the development of breast cancer. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a molecular variant of breast cancer that lacks therapeutic targets such as progesterone receptor, estrogen receptor, and human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 which makes the targeted therapy ineffective in TNBC patients. Therefore, identification of new therapeutic targets for the treatment of TNBC and the discovery of new therapeutic agents is the need of the hour. In this study, CXCR4 was found to be highly expressed in majority of breast cancer tissues and metastatic lymph nodes derived from TNBC patients. CXCR4 expression is positively correlated with breast cancer metastasis and poor prognosis of TNBC patients suggesting that suppression of CXCR4 expression could be a good strategy in the treatment of TNBC patients. Therefore, the effect of Z-guggulsterone (ZGA) on the expression of CXCR4 in TNBC cells was examined. ZGA downregulated protein and mRNA expression of CXCR4 in TNBC cells and proteasome inhibition or lysosomal stabilization had no effect on the ZGA-induced CXCR4 reduction. CXCR4 is under the transcriptional control of NF-κB, whereas ZGA was found to downregulate transcriptional activity NF-κB. Functionally, ZGA downmodulated the CXCL12-driven migration/invasion in TNBC cells. Additionally, the effect of ZGA on growth of tumor was investigated in the orthotopic TNBC mice model and ZGA presented good inhibition of tumor growth and liver/lung metastasis in this model. Western blotting and immunohistochemical analysis indicated a reduction of CXCR4, NF-κB, and Ki67 in tumor tissues. Computational analysis suggested PXR agonism and FXR antagonism as targets of ZGA. In conclusion, CXCR4 was found to be overexpressed in majority of patient-derived TNBC tissues and ZGA abrogated the growth of TNBC tumors by partly targeting the CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling axis.

Z-Guggulsterone Induces Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis by Targeting the p53/CCNB1/PLK1 Pathway in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Myrrh is the dried resin of Commiphora Myrrh Engl., which exerts anticancer properties. However, its effects and molecular mechanisms in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) remain unclear. In this study, we used network pharmacology to screen Z-Guggulsterone (Z-GS) as a characteristic active component of myrrh. Cell Counting Kit-8 proliferation assays showed that Z-GS inhibited proliferation of the TNBC cell lines MDA-MB-468 and BT-549. Transwell assays also showed that Z-GS inhibited TNBC migration and invasion phenotypes. Our network pharmacology combined with RNA-sequencing analyses showed that Z-GS affected cell cycle and apoptosis processes in TNBC cells, mainly via p53 signaling, to regulate key CCNB1 (cyclin B1), PLK1 (polo-like kinase 1), and p53 targets. Flow cytometry revealed that Z-GS arrested the cell cycle at the G2/M phase and increased apoptosis in TNBC cells. Western blotting and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction studies confirmed that Z-GS functioned via the p53-mediated downregulation of CCNB1 and PLK1 expression. In vivo studies showed that Z-GS effectively inhibited TNBC progression. Collectively, Z-GS exhibited potential anti-TNBC activity and may functions via the p53/CCNB1/PLK1 pathway.

Guggulsterone Induces Apoptosis in Multiple Myeloma Cells by Targeting High Mobility Group Box 1 via Janus Activated Kinase/Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription Pathway

Multiple myeloma (MM) is a hematological disorder characterized by the abnormal expansion of plasma cells in the bone marrow. Despite great advances over the past three decades in discovering the efficacious therapies for MM, the disease remains incurable for most patients owing to emergence of drug-resistant cancerous cells. Guggulsterone (GS), a phytosteroid, extracted from the gum resin of guggul plant, has displayed various anticancer activities in vitro and in vivo; however, the molecular mechanisms of its anticancer activity have not been evaluated in MM cells. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the anticancer activity of GS in various MM cell lines (U266, MM.1S, and RPMI 8226) and the mechanisms involved. GS treatment of MM cells caused inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptotic cell death as indicated by increased Bax protein expression, activation of caspases, and cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. This was associated with the downregulation of various proliferative and antiapoptotic gene products, including cyclin D, Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, and X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein. GS also suppressed the constitutive and interleukin 6-induced activation of STAT3. Interestingly, the inhibition of Janus activated kinase or STAT3 activity by the specific inhibitors or by siRNA knockdown of STAT3 resulted in the downregulation of HMGB1, suggesting an association between GS, STAT3, and HMGB1. Finally, GS potentiated the anticancer effects of bortezomib (BTZ) in MM cells. Herein, we demonstrated that GS could be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of MM, possibly alone or in combination with BTZ.

Linking Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Brain Disease: Focusing on Bile Acid Signaling

A metabolic illness known as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), affects more than one-quarter of the world's population. Bile acids (BAs), as detergents involved in lipid digestion, show an abnormal metabolism in patients with NAFLD. However, BAs can affect other organs as well, such as the brain, where it has a neuroprotective effect. According to a series of studies, brain disorders may be extrahepatic manifestations of NAFLD, such as depression, changes to the cerebrovascular system, and worsening cognitive ability. Consequently, we propose that NAFLD affects the development of brain disease, through the bile acid signaling pathway. Through direct or indirect channels, BAs can send messages to the brain. Some BAs may operate directly on the central Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and the G protein bile acid-activated receptor 1 (GPBAR1) by overcoming the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Furthermore, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 19 are released from the intestine FXR and GPBAR1 receptors, upon activation, both of which send signals to the brain. Inflammatory, systemic metabolic disorders in the liver and brain are regulated by the bile acid-activated receptors FXR and GPBAR1, which are potential therapeutic targets. From a bile acid viewpoint, we examine the bile acid signaling changes in NAFLD and brain disease. We also recommend the development of dual GPBAR1/FXR ligands to reduce side effects and manage NAFLD and brain disease efficiently.

The Role of Myrrh Metabolites in Cancer, Inflammation, and Wound Healing: Prospects for a Multi-Targeted Drug Therapy

Background: Myrrh extract is a well-known medicinal plant with significant therapeutic benefits attributed to the activity of its diverse metabolites. It has promising activity against cancer and inflammatory diseases, and could serve as a potential therapeutic alternative since most therapeutic agents have severe side effects that impair quality of life. Method: The current study identified the active metabolites from the myrrh resin methanolic extract. Then, the extracts were tested for in vitro anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activity using cancer cell lines and Tamm-Horsfall Protein 1 (Thp-1)-like macrophage cell lines. Furthermore, using an in vivo rat model, the extracts’ anti-inflammatory and wound-healing activity was investigated. In addition, in silico predictions of the myrrh constituents highlighted the pharmacokinetic properties, molecular targets, and safety profile, including cytochrome P 450 (CYP) inhibition and organ toxicity. Results: Nine secondary metabolites were identified, and computational predictions suggested a good absorption profile, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing effects. The myrrh extract had moderate cytotoxic activity against both HL60 and K562 leukemia cell lines and the KAIMRC1 breast cancer cell line. Myrrh caused a dose-dependent effect on macrophages to increase the reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, promote their polarization to classically activated macrophages (M1) and alternatively activated macrophages (M2) phenotypes, and consequently induce apoptosis, highlighting its ability to modulate macrophage function, which could potentially aid in several desired therapeutic processes, including the resolution of inflammation, and autophagy which is an important aspect to consider in cancer treatment. The topical application of myrrh improved wound healing, with no delayed inflammatory response, and promoted complete re-epithelization of the skin, similar to the positive control. In conclusion, we provide evidence for the methanolic extract of myrrh having cytotoxic activity against cancer cells and anti-inflammatory wound-healing properties, which may be attributed to its role in modulating macrophage function. Furthermore, we suggest the active constituents responsible for these properties, which warrants further studies focusing on the precise roles of the active metabolites.

Potential Utility of Natural Products against Oxidative Stress in Animal Models of Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune-mediated degenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by immune cell infiltration, demyelination and axonal injury. Oxidative stress-induced inflammatory response, especially the destructive effect of immune cell-derived free radicals on neurons and oligodendrocytes, is crucial in the onset and progression of MS. Therefore, targeting oxidative stress-related processes may be a promising preventive and therapeutic strategy for MS. Animal models, especially rodent models, can be used to explore the in vivo molecular mechanisms of MS considering their similarity to the pathological processes and clinical signs of MS in humans and the significant oxidative damage observed within their CNS. Consequently, these models have been used widely in pre-clinical studies of oxidative stress in MS. To date, many natural products have been shown to exert antioxidant effects to attenuate the CNS damage in animal models of MS. This review summarized several common rodent models of MS and their association with oxidative stress. In addition, this review provides a comprehensive and concise overview of previously reported natural antioxidant products in inhibiting the progression of MS.

The role of guggulsterone on the NF-κB pathway in inflammatory bowel disease: preclinical evidence

Guggulsterone, a phytosterol in the herb Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari, has been used in the treatment of diseases such as hyperlipidemia, arthritis and atherosclerosis. It has attracted significant research interest because of its pharmacological properties, especially its anti-inflammatory nature. It can be used for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a disease characterized by chronic inflammation and damage in the gastrointestinal tract. In various preclinical studies, it inhibited NF-κB, an important pathway in the pathophysiology of IBD. This review summarizes the preclinical studies on this topic for providing more insights to the mechanism by which guggulsterone exerts its effect.

Z-Guggulsterone attenuates cognitive defects and decreases neuroinflammation in APPswe/PS1dE9 mice through inhibiting the TLR4 signaling pathway

Growing evidence indicates that inflammatory damage is implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Z-Guggulsterone (Z-GS) is a natural steroid, which is extracted from Commiphora mukul and has anti-inflammatory effects in vivo and in vitro. In the present study, we investigated the disease-modifying effects of chronic Z-GS administration on the cognitive and neuropathological impairments in the transgenic mouse models of AD. We found that chronic Z-GS administration prevented learning and memory deficits in the APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. In addition, Z-GS treatment significantly decreased cerebral amyloid-β (Aβ) levels and plaque burden via inhibiting amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing by reducing beta-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) expression in the APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. We also found that Z-GS treatment markedly alleviated neuroinflammation and reduced synaptic defects in the APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. Furthermore, the activated TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathways in APPswe/PS1dE9 mice were remarkably inhibited by Z-GS treatment, which was achieved via suppressing the phosphorylation of JNK. Collectively, our data demonstrate that chronic Z-GS treatment restores cognitive defects and reverses multiple neuropathological impairments in the APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. This study provides novel insights into the neuroprotective effects and neurobiological mechanisms of Z-GS on AD, indicating that Z-GS is a promising disease-modifying agent for the treatment of AD.

Z-Guggulsterone Relieves Neuropathic Pain by Inhibiting the Expression of Astrocytes and Proinflammatory Cytokines in the Spinal Dorsal Horn

Objective

The study objective was to investigate whether Z-guggulsterone can relieve neuropathic pain in sciatic nerve chronic constriction injury (CCI) mice by inhibiting the expression of astrocytes and proinflammatory cytokines in the spinal dorsal horn.

Methods

Neuropathic pain was induced and assessed in CCI mice. Z-guggulsterone was administered multiple times via intraperitoneal injection. Pain behaviour assessments were made by conducting paw withdrawal mechanical threshold (PWMT) and thermal withdrawal latency (TWL) tests. The expression level of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the spinal dorsal horn was observed by immunofluorescence. The levels of the proinflammatory cytokines, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in the spinal cord were measured by ELISA. Data were analysed using one-way ANOVA or two-way ANOVA.

Results

The PWMT and TWL were higher on the 5th, 7th, 10th and 14th days after CCI, the expression level of GFAP in the spinal dorsal horn was lower, and the levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in the spinal cord were lower in the CCI+Z-GS-L, CCI+Z-GS-M and CCI+Z-GS-H groups than in the CCI+Veh group in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Z-guggulsterone can relieve neurological pain in CCI mice, which may be related to the inhibition of astrocytes and proinflammatory cytokines in the spinal dorsal horn.

Guggulsterone ameliorates ethidium bromide-induced experimental model of multiple sclerosis via restoration of behavioral, molecular, neurochemical and morphological alterations in rat brain

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease with clinical signs of neuroinflammation and the central nervous system's demyelination. Numerous studies have identified the role of the Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) overexpression and the low level of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) in MS pathogenesis. Guggulsterone (GST), an active component derived from 'Commiphora Mukul,' has been used to treat various diseases. Traditional uses indicate that GST is a suitable agent for anti-inflammatory action. Therefore, we assessed the therapeutic potential of GST (30 and 60 mg/kg) in ethidium bromide (EB) induced demyelination in experimental rats and investigated the molecular mechanism by modulating the JAK/STAT and PPAR-γ receptor signaling. Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups (n = 6). EB (0.1%/10 μl) was injected selectively in the intracerebropeduncle (ICP) region for seven days to cause MS-like manifestations. The present study reveals that long-term administration of GST for 28 days has a neuroprotective effect by improving behavioral deficits (spatial cognition memory, grip, and motor coordination) associated with lower STAT-3 levels. While elevating PPAR-γ and myelin basic protein levels in rat brains are consistent with the functioning of both signaling pathways. Also, GST modulates the neurotransmitter level by increasing Ach, dopamine, serotonin and by reducing glutamate. Moreover, GST ameliorates inflammatory cytokines (TNF, IL-1β), and oxidative stress markers (AchE, SOD, catalase, MDA, GSH, nitrite). In addition, GST prevented apoptosis, as demonstrated by the reduction of caspase-3 and Bax. Simultaneously, Bcl-2 elevation and the restoration of gross morphology alterations are also recovered by long-term GST treatment. Therefore, it can be concluded that GST may be a potential alternative drug candidate for MS-related motor neuron dysfunctions.

(E)-Guggulsterone Inhibits Dengue Virus Replication by Upregulating Antiviral Interferon Responses through the Induction of Heme Oxygenase-1 Expression

Dengue virus (DENV) infection, which causes dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever, and dengue shock syndrome, is a severe global health problem in tropical and subtropical areas. There is no effective vaccine or drug against DENV infection. Thus, the development of anti-DENV agents is imperative. This study aimed to assess the anti-DENV activity of (E)-guggulsterone using a DENV infectious system. A specific inhibitor targeting signal molecules was used to evaluate the molecular mechanisms of action. Western blotting and qRT-PCR were used to determine DENV protein expression and RNA replication, respectively. Finally, an ICR suckling mouse model was used to examine the anti-DENV activity of (E)-guggulsterone in vivo. A dose-dependent inhibitory effect of (E)-guggulsterone on DENV protein synthesis and RNA replication without cytotoxicity was observed. The mechanistic studied revealed that (E)-guggulsterone stimulates Nrf2-mediated heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression, which increases the antiviral interferon responses and downstream antiviral gene expression by blocking DENV NS2B/3B protease activity. Moreover, (E)-guggulsterone protected ICR suckling mice from life-threatening DENV infection. These results suggest that (E)-guggulsterone can be a potential supplement for controlling DENV replication.

Z-guggulsterone induces PD-L1 upregulation partly mediated by FXR, Akt and Erk1/2 signaling pathways in non-small cell lung cancer

Programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) is an immune checkpoint molecule, that is overexpressed in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and has been associated with the response to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy. Z-guggulsterone (Z-GS), an active compound extracted from the gumresin of the Commiphora mukul tree, has been shown to have anti-tumor effects in NSCLC in our previous study. However, whether Z-GS could affect PD-L1 expression levels in tumor cells remains unknown. In this study, we verified the inhibitory effects of Z-GS on NSCLC cell viability and cell cycle progression in vitro, and mouse Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) tumor growth in vivo. Notably, Z-GS treatment increased PD-L1 surface and mRNA expression levels, and gene transcription in NSCLC cells, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Mechanistic experiments showed that the upregulation of PD-L1 was mediated, partly by farnesoid X receptor inhibition, and partly by the activation of the Akt and Erk1/2 signaling pathways in Z-GS-treated NSCLC cells. In vivo, Z-GS treatment dose-dependently increased PD-L1 expression levels in mouse LLC tumor models. Overall, our findings demonstrated a promoting role for Z-GS in PD-L1 expression in NSCLC and provided mechanistic insights, that may be used for further investigation into synergistic combined therapies.

Possible Herb-Drug Interaction Risk of Some Nutritional and Beauty Supplements on Antiretroviral Therapy in HIV Patients

This study was carried out to assess the drug interaction potential of a variety of beauty and sports/nutritional supplements when co-administered with antiviral drug therapy, especially anti-HIV drugs. Ethanolic extracts of seven dietary supplements (two beauty products, three nutritional protein supplement products and two weight loss/body building products) were examined in human liver cells (HepG2 cells and primary hepatocytes) for their influence on the hepatic metabolism of five antiviral drugs (elvitegravir, rilpivirine, tenofovir, dolutegravir, and cobicistat), all of which are substrates for a key drug metabolizing enzyme CYP3A4. Our results showed that six of the seven supplements caused a 1.5 - 2 fold induction in PXR transcriptional activity in HepG2 cells. PXR regulates the expression of key drug metabolizing enzymes including CYP3A4. Follow up studies indicated a 1.5 - 3 fold induction in CYP3A4 enzyme activity in HepG2 cells treated with these supplements. We further investigated the effects of the supplement on the metabolism of above mentioned anti-viral drugs in HepG2 cells and primary hepatocytes. Of the five drugs, rilpivirine and dolutegravir metabolism was increased by up to 2-folds over the no supplement control by some of the supplements. Our findings indicate that concomitant consumption of these products with anti-HIV drugs may compromise the efficacy of antivirals therapy due to supplement-induced metabolism via induction of CYP3A4 activity.

Potential of guggulsterone, a farnesoid X receptor antagonist, in the prevention and treatment of cancer

Cancer is one of the most dreadful diseases in the world with a mortality of 9.6 million annually. Despite the advances in diagnosis and treatment during the last couple of decades, it still remains a serious concern due to the limitations associated with currently available cancer management strategies. Therefore, alternative strategies are highly required to overcome these glitches. The importance of medicinal plants as primary healthcare has been well-known from time immemorial against various human diseases, including cancer. Commiphora wightii that belongs to Burseraceae family is one such plant which has been used to cure various ailments in traditional systems of medicine. This plant has diverse pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antimutagenic, and antitumor which mostly owes to the presence of its active compound guggulsterone (GS) that exists in the form of Z- and E-isomers. Mounting evidence suggests that this compound has promising anticancer activities and was shown to suppress several cancer signaling pathways such as NF-κB/ERK/MAPK/AKT/STAT and modulate the expression of numerous signaling molecules such as the farnesoid X receptor, cyclin D1, survivin, caspases, HIF-1α, MMP-9, EMT proteins, tumor suppressor proteins, angiogenic proteins, and apoptotic proteins. The current review is an attempt to summarize the biological activities and diverse anticancer activities (both in vitro and in vivo) of the compound GS and its derivatives, along with its associated mechanism against various cancers.

Protein Expression Profiling Identifies Key Proteins and Pathways Involved in Growth Inhibitory Effects Exerted by Guggulsterone in Human Colorectal Cancer Cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading killer cancer worldwide and one of the most common malignancies with increasing incidences of mortality. Guggulsterone (GS) is a plant sterol used for treatment of various ailments such as obesity, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and arthritis. In the current study, anti-cancer effects of GS in human colorectal cancer cell line HCT 116 was tested, potential targets identified using mass spectrometry-based label-free shotgun proteomics approach and key pathways validated by proteome profiler antibody arrays. Comprehensive proteomic profiling identified 14 proteins as significantly dysregulated. Proteins involved in cell proliferation/migration, tumorigenesis, cell growth, metabolism, and DNA replication were downregulated while the protein with functional role in exocytosis/tumor suppression was found to be upregulated. Our study evidenced that GS treatment altered expression of Bcl-2 mediated the mitochondrial release of cytochrome c which triggered the formation of apoptosome as well as activation of caspase-3/7 leading to death of HCT 116 cells via intrinsic apoptosis pathway. GS treatment also induced expression of p53 protein while p21 expression was unaltered with no cell cycle arrest. In addition, GS was found to inhibit NF-kB signaling in colon cancer cells by quelling the expression of its regulated gene products Bcl-2, cIAP-1, and survivin.

Z-Guggulsterone attenuates astrocytes-mediated neuroinflammation after ischemia by inhibiting toll-like receptor 4 pathway

Inflammatory damage plays a pivotal role in ischemic stroke pathogenesis and may represent one of the therapeutic targets. Z-Guggulsterone (Z-GS), an active component derived from myrrh, has been used to treat various diseases. The traditional uses suggest that myrrh is a good candidate for anti-inflammatory damage. This study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of Z-GS following cerebral ischemic injury, as well as the exact mechanisms behind them. Rat middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model and in vitro astrocytes oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) model were adopted to simulate ischemic stroke. Z-GS (30 or 60 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally immediately after reperfusion, while astrocytes were maintained in 30 or 60 μM Z-GS before OGD treatment. The results indicated that Z-GS significantly alleviated neurological deficits, infarct volume and histopathological damage in vivo, and increased the astrocytes viability in vitro. Moreover, the treatment of Z-GS inhibited the astrocytes activation and down-regulated the mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, the activated TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathways induced by MCAO or OGD were significantly suppressed by Z-GS treatment, which was achieved via inhibiting the phosphorylation of JNK. Our results demonstrated that Z-GS exerted neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties through preventing activation of TLR4-mediated pathway in the activated astrocytes after ischemia injury. Therefore, Z-GS could be considered as a promising candidate for the treatment of ischemic stroke.

Googling the Guggul (Commiphora and Boswellia) for Prevention of Chronic Diseases

Extensive research during last 2 decades has revealed that most drugs discovered today, although costs billions of dollars for discovery, and yet they are highly ineffective in their clinical response. For instance, the European Medicines Agency has approved 68 anti-cancer drugs, and out of which 39 has reached the market level with no indication of increased survival nor betterment of quality of life. Even when drugs did improve survival rate compared to available treatment strategies, most of these were found to be clinically insignificant. This is a fundamental problem with modern drug discovery which is based on thinking that most chronic diseases are caused by alteration of a single gene and thus most therapies are single gene-targeted therapies. However, extensive research has revealed that most chronic diseases are caused by multiple gene products. Although most drugs designed by man are mono-targeted therapies, however, those designed by "mother nature" and have been used for thousands of years, are "multi-targeted" therapies. In this review, we examine two agents that have been around for thousands of years, namely "guggul" from Commiphora and Boswellia. Although we are all familiar with the search engine "google," this is another type of "guggul" that has been used for centuries and being explored for its various biological activities. The current review summarizes the traditional uses, chemistry, in vitro and in vivo biological activities, molecular targets, and clinical trials performed with these agents.

Discovery of Natural Products as Novel and Potent FXR Antagonists by Virtual Screening

Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a member of nuclear receptor family involved in multiple physiological processes through regulating specific target genes. The critical role of FXR as a transcriptional regulator makes it a promising target for diverse diseases, especially those related to metabolic disorders such as diabetes and cholestasis. However, the underlying activation mechanism of FXR is still a blur owing to the absence of proper FXR modulators. To identify potential FXR modulators, an in-house natural product database (NPD) containing over 4,000 compounds was screened by structure-based virtual screening strategy and subsequent hit-based similarity searching method. After the yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) assay, six natural products were identified as FXR antagonists which blocked the CDCA-induced SRC-1 association. The IC₅₀ values of compounds 2a, a diterpene bearing polycyclic skeleton, and 3a, named daphneone with chain scaffold, are as low as 1.29 and 1.79 μM, respectively. Compared to the control compound guggulsterone (IC₅₀ = 6.47 μM), compounds 2a and 3a displayed 5- and 3-fold higher antagonistic activities against FXR, respectively. Remarkably, the two representative compounds shared low topological similarities with other reported FXR antagonists. According to the putative binding poses, the molecular basis of these antagonists against FXR was also elucidated in this report.