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George S, Sharp E, Campbell S, Giela A, Senior C, Melton LM, Vyas D, Mocogni L, Galloway M. Anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in common buzzards: Impact of new rules for rodenticide use. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 944:173832. [PMID: 38879042 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Rodenticides are a key component of rodent management strategies, but birds of prey are susceptible to non-target exposure. New rules on sale and use of rodenticide products were introduced across the UK in 2016 in an industry-led stewardship scheme, with the aim of reducing this risk. To determine if this intervention has achieved its aim, exposure to second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) was measured in buzzards. Liver samples from 790 buzzards collected between 2005 and 2022 (excluding 2016 and 2017 samples) were analyzed and the percentage presence and concentrations of SGARs from pre-stewardship and post-stewardship samples were compared. There was no statistically significant decrease in the percentage of buzzards exposed to bromadiolone, difenacoum or combined SGAR residues after the introduction of stewardship. The percentage of buzzards exposed to brodifacoum increased significantly post-stewardship, from 8 % to 27 %. There were no significant decreases in the concentrations of individual SGARs post-stewardship but concentration of combined SGARs increased significantly post-stewardship. Individual buzzards were significantly more likely to be exposed to multiple SGARs post-stewardship. Rodenticide poisoning was recorded as the cause of death for 5 % of pre- and post-stewardship buzzards with detectable levels of SGARs, and 90 % of these had combined SGAR residues >0.1 mg/kg. These findings suggest that the industry-led stewardship scheme has not yet had the intended impact of reducing SGAR exposure in non-target wildlife. The study highlights a substantial increase in exposure of buzzards to brodifacoum and to multiple SGARs post-stewardship, indicating that further changes to the stewardship scheme may be necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila George
- Wildlife Management Unit, Diagnostics, Wildlife Management and Molecular Biology, SASA, Edinburgh, UK.
| | - E Sharp
- Chemistry Dept, SASA, Edinburgh, UK
| | - S Campbell
- Wildlife Management Unit, Diagnostics, Wildlife Management and Molecular Biology, SASA, Edinburgh, UK
| | - A Giela
- Chemistry Dept, SASA, Edinburgh, UK
| | - C Senior
- Chemistry Dept, SASA, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - D Vyas
- Chemistry Dept, SASA, Edinburgh, UK
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Ozaki S, Movalli P, Cincinelli A, Alygizakis N, Badry A, Carter H, Chaplow JS, Claßen D, Dekker RWRJ, Dodd B, Duke G, Koschorreck J, Pereira MG, Potter E, Sleep D, Slobodnik J, Thomaidis NS, Treu G, Walker L. Significant Turning Point: Common Buzzard ( Buteo buteo) Exposure to Second-Generation Anticoagulant Rodenticides in the United Kingdom. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:6093-6104. [PMID: 38545700 PMCID: PMC11008253 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c09052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) are widely used to control rodent populations, resulting in the serious secondary exposure of predators to these contaminants. In the United Kingdom (UK), professional use and purchase of SGARs were revised in the 2010s. Certain highly toxic SGARs have been authorized since then to be used outdoors around buildings as resistance-breaking chemicals under risk mitigation procedures. However, it is still uncertain whether and how these regulatory changes have influenced the secondary exposure of birds of prey to SGARs. Based on biomonitoring of the UK Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) collected from 2001 to 2019, we assessed the temporal trend of exposure to SGARs and statistically determined potential turning points. The magnitude of difenacoum decreased over time with a seasonal fluctuation, while the magnitude and prevalence of more toxic brodifacoum, authorized to be used outdoors around buildings after the regulatory changes, increased. The summer of 2016 was statistically identified as a turning point for exposure to brodifacoum and summed SGARs that increased after this point. This time point coincided with the aforementioned regulatory changes. Our findings suggest a possible shift in SGAR use to brodifacoum from difenacoum over the decades, which may pose higher risks of impacts on wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Ozaki
- UK
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster
Environment Centre, Library
Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA1 4AP, United
Kingdom
| | - Paola Movalli
- Naturalis
Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Alessandra Cincinelli
- Department
of Chemistry “Ugo Schiff”, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia 3, 50019 Florence, Italy
| | - Nikiforos Alygizakis
- Environmental
Institute, Okružná
784/42, 97241 Koš, Slovak Republic
- Department
of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zographou, 15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Alexander Badry
- German Environment
Agency (Umweltbundesamt), Wörlitzer Platz 1, 06813 Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - Heather Carter
- UK
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster
Environment Centre, Library
Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA1 4AP, United
Kingdom
| | - Jacqueline S. Chaplow
- UK
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster
Environment Centre, Library
Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA1 4AP, United
Kingdom
| | - Daniela Claßen
- German Environment
Agency (Umweltbundesamt), Wörlitzer Platz 1, 06813 Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | | | - Beverley Dodd
- UK
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster
Environment Centre, Library
Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA1 4AP, United
Kingdom
| | - Guy Duke
- UK
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, MacLean Bldg, Benson Ln, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford OX10 8BB, United Kingdom
| | - Jan Koschorreck
- German Environment
Agency (Umweltbundesamt), Wörlitzer Platz 1, 06813 Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - M. Glória Pereira
- UK
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster
Environment Centre, Library
Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA1 4AP, United
Kingdom
| | - Elaine Potter
- UK
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster
Environment Centre, Library
Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA1 4AP, United
Kingdom
| | - Darren Sleep
- UK
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster
Environment Centre, Library
Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA1 4AP, United
Kingdom
| | | | - Nikolaos S. Thomaidis
- Department
of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zographou, 15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Gabriele Treu
- German Environment
Agency (Umweltbundesamt), Wörlitzer Platz 1, 06813 Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - Lee Walker
- UK
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster
Environment Centre, Library
Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA1 4AP, United
Kingdom
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Elliott JE, Silverthorn V, English SG, Mineau P, Hindmarch S, Thomas PJ, Lee S, Bowes V, Redford T, Maisonneuve F, Okoniewski J. Anticoagulant Rodenticide Toxicity in Terrestrial Raptors: Tools to Estimate the Impact on Populations in North America and Globally. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2024. [PMID: 38415966 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) have caused widespread contamination and poisoning of predators and scavengers. The diagnosis of toxicity proceeds from evidence of hemorrhage, and subsequent detection of residues in liver. Many factors confound the assessment of AR poisoning, particularly exposure dose, timing and frequency of exposure, and individual and taxon-specific variables. There is a need, therefore, for better AR toxicity criteria. To respond, we compiled a database of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide (SGAR) residues in liver and postmortem evaluations of 951 terrestrial raptor carcasses from Canada and the United States, 1989 to 2021. We developed mixed-effects logistic regression models to produce specific probability curves of the toxicity of ∑SGARs at the taxonomic level of the family, and separately for three SGARs registered in North America, brodifacoum, bromadiolone, and difethialone. The ∑SGAR threshold concentrations for diagnosis of coagulopathy at 0.20 probability of risk were highest for strigid owls (15 ng g-1 ) lower and relatively similar for accipitrid hawks and eagles (8.2 ng g-1 ) and falcons (7.9 ng g-1 ), and much lower for tytonid barn owls (0.32 ng g-1 ). These values are lower than those we found previously, due to compilation and use of a larger database with a mix of species and source locations, and also to refinements in the statistical methods. Our presentation of results on the family taxonomic level should aid in the global applicability of the numbers. We also collated a subset of 440 single-compound exposure events and determined the probability of SGAR-poisoning symptoms as a function of SGAR concentration, which we then used to estimate relative SGAR toxicity and toxic equivalence factors: difethialone, 1, brodifacoum, 0.8, and bromadiolone, 0.5. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;00:1-11. © 2024 His Majesty the King in Right of Canada and The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Environment and Climate Change Canada.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Elliott
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Delta, British Columbia, Canada
- Applied Animal Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Veronica Silverthorn
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Delta, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Simon G English
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Pierre Mineau
- Pierre Mineau Consulting, Salt Spring Island, Canada
- Biology Department, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sofi Hindmarch
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Delta, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Philippe J Thomas
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Directorate, National Wildlife Research Centre, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sandi Lee
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Delta, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Victoria Bowes
- Animal Health Centre, British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture, Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Tony Redford
- Animal Health Centre, British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture, Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada
| | - France Maisonneuve
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Directorate, National Wildlife Research Centre, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joseph Okoniewski
- Wildlife Health Unit, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Delmar, New York, USA
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Bertolini FM, Barolo E, Masti R, De Arcangeli S, Furlanello T, Ongaro V, Meneghini C, Sanchez Del Pulgar J. Fast and sensitive method for the diagnosis and follow-up of anticoagulant rodenticides poisoning in animal whole blood. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2024; 1232:123971. [PMID: 38128166 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2023.123971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Rodent control strategies are primarily based on the use of anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs), making them widely used worldwide. However, due to their high toxicity and availability, ARs are among the leading causes of animal poisoning in Europe. They are the primary agents involved in intoxication in cats and the second in dogs. Additionally, their long persistence in the body can lead to secondary exposure, particularly in wild predators. The laboratory findings and clinical signs of intoxication can range from increased clotting time (prolonged prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time) to severe bleeding and death. Despite the prevalence and severity of this intoxication, only a few methods are available for the identification and quantification of ARs in animals, and most of them are suitable only for post-mortem diagnosis. In this study, we present the validation of a rapid and sensitive method for the identification and quantification of ARs in animal whole blood, using a small sample volume. The developed LC-MS/MS method demonstrated high accuracy and precision at the limit of quantification (LOQ), as well as at low, medium, and high concentrations. It exhibited higher sensitivity (LOQ 0.1 - 0.3 ng/mL) compared to previously published methods. After validation, the method was successfully applied to real cases of suspected poisoning events, resulting in the identification of several positive samples. The examples presented in this study highlight the utility of this method for diagnosis and follow-up, emphasizing the importance of method sensitivity in order to avoid misclassifying truly positive samples as negative.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elena Barolo
- San Marco Veterinary Clinic and Laboratory, Via dell'Industria 3, 35030 Veggiano (Padova), Italy
| | - Riccardo Masti
- San Marco Veterinary Clinic and Laboratory, Via dell'Industria 3, 35030 Veggiano (Padova), Italy
| | - Stefano De Arcangeli
- San Marco Veterinary Clinic and Laboratory, Via dell'Industria 3, 35030 Veggiano (Padova), Italy
| | - Tommaso Furlanello
- San Marco Veterinary Clinic and Laboratory, Via dell'Industria 3, 35030 Veggiano (Padova), Italy
| | - Valeria Ongaro
- San Marco Veterinary Clinic and Laboratory, Via dell'Industria 3, 35030 Veggiano (Padova), Italy
| | - Chiara Meneghini
- San Marco Veterinary Clinic and Laboratory, Via dell'Industria 3, 35030 Veggiano (Padova), Italy
| | - Jose Sanchez Del Pulgar
- San Marco Veterinary Clinic and Laboratory, Via dell'Industria 3, 35030 Veggiano (Padova), Italy.
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Gomez EA, Prestridge HL, Smith JA. Anthropogenic threats to owls: Insights from rehabilitation admittance data and rodenticide screening in Texas. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289228. [PMID: 37540671 PMCID: PMC10403058 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Owls (Strigiformes) provide myriad ecosystem services and are sentinels for ecosystem health. However, they are at continued risk from anthropogenic threats such as vehicle collisions, entanglement with human-made materials, and exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs), a widespread pesticide known to affect owls. Texas is an important region for numerous migratory and non-migratory owl species in the United States (US), yet assessments of threats owls face here are lacking preventing the development of informed conservation strategies. This study coupled assessment of admittance data from two wildlife rehabilitation centers in Texas with AR liver screening to (1) identify which species of owls are commonly admitted, (2) evaluate seasonality of admittance, and (3) assess causes of admittance for owls in Texas. Between 2010 and 2021, 1,620 owls were admitted into rehabilitation, representing eight species of which the Great-horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) was the most common. For all owls combined admittance rates were highest in the spring, driven by an influx of juveniles (n = 703, 43.40%). The leading cause of admittance amongst species was 'no apparent injury' (n = 567, 34.94%). Where clear diagnoses could be made, the leading causes of admittances were 'entrapment in human infrastructure' (n = 100, 6.11%) and 'collision with vehicles' (n = 74, 4.56%). While the admittance data did not reveal any cases of AR poisoning, liver screening demonstrated high incidences of AR exposure; of 53 owls screened for ARs, 50.94% (n = 27) tested positive with 18 showing exposure to multiple ARs. Brodifacoum was the most frequently detected AR (n = 19, 43.18%) and seven owls (25.93%) tested positive within lethal ranges. Our results suggest that owls in Texas are at risk from myriad anthropogenic threats and face high exposure rates to ARs. In doing so, our results can inform conservation strategies that mitigate anthropogenic threats faced by owls in Texas and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eres A Gomez
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Heather L Prestridge
- Biodiversity Research and Teaching Collections, Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Jennifer A Smith
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
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6
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Vyas NB, Rattner BA, Lockhart JM, Hulse CS, Rice CP, Kuncir F, Kritz K. Toxicological responses to sublethal anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in free-flying hawks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:74024-74037. [PMID: 35633457 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-20881-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
An important component of assessing the hazards of anticoagulant rodenticides to non-target wildlife is observations in exposed free-ranging individuals. The objective of this study was to determine whether environmentally realistic, sublethal first-generation anticoagulant rodenticide (FGAR) exposures via prey can result in direct or indirect adverse effects to free-flying raptors. We offered black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) that had fed on Rozol® Prairie Dog Bait (Rozol, 0.005% active ingredient chlorophacinone, CPN) to six wild-caught red-tailed hawks (RTHA, Buteo jamaicensis), and also offered black-tailed prairie dogs that were not exposed to Rozol to another two wild-caught RTHAs for 7 days. On day 6, blood was collected to determine CPN's effects on blood clotting time. On day 7, seven of the eight RTHAs were fitted with VHF radio telemetry transmitters and the RTHAs were released the following day and were monitored for 33 days. Prothrombin time (PT) and Russell's viper venom time confirmed that the CPN-exposed RTHAs were exposed to and were adversely affected by CPN. Four of the six CPN-exposed RTHAs exhibited ptiloerection, an indication of thermoregulatory dysfunction due to CPN toxicity, but no signs of intoxication were observed in the reference hawk or the remaining two CPN-exposed RTHAs. Of note is that PT values were associated with ptiloerection duration and frequency; therefore, sublethal CPN exposure can directly or indirectly evoke adverse effects in wild birds. Although our sample sizes were small, this study is a first to relate coagulation times to adverse clinical signs in free-ranging birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nimish B Vyas
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD, 20708, USA.
| | - Barnett A Rattner
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, c/o BARC-East, Building 308, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - J Michael Lockhart
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD, 20708, USA
| | - Craig S Hulse
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, c/o BARC-East, Building 308, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Clifford P Rice
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center-West, Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Frank Kuncir
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD, 20708, USA
| | - Kevin Kritz
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mountain Prairie Region, Migratory Bird Management Office, DFC, CO 80225-0486, Lakewood, P.O. Box 25486, Denver, CO, 80228, USA
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Ravindran S, Noor HM, Salim H. Anticoagulant rodenticide use in oil palm plantations in Southeast Asia and hazard assessment to non-target animals. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2022; 31:976-997. [PMID: 35699849 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-022-02559-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are used worldwide for the control of rodent pests and are the main method of control of rat pest populations in agricultural areas. The main aim of this review is to discuss the risk of ARs to non-target wildlife in oil palm areas in Southeast Asia, mainly Indonesia and Malaysia. We discussed AR use in oil palm areas and toxicities of ARs on target and non-target animals. We also reviewed published literature on wildlife species reported in oil palm areas in Southeast Asia and utilizing this information, we assessed the hazard risk of ARs to non-target wildlife in oil palm plantations. ARs are a secondary exposure hazard to rodent-consuming mammalian carnivores, such as leopard cats and civets, and rodent-consuming raptors, such as barn owls. Consumption of dead poisoned prey puts scavengers, such as water monitors, at high risk for AR exposure. Domestic livestock and granivorous birds are at high risk for AR exposure via primary exposure to toxic bait, while omnivores such as macaques and wild pigs are at moderate risk for both primary and secondary exposure to ARs. The effects of ARs on barn owls have been well studied in the field and in laboratory secondary toxicity studies. Thus, the nest-box occupancy and reproductive parameters of local barn owl populations can be monitored as an indicator of the AR exposure level in the area. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: No clinical trials were involved in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakinah Ravindran
- Barn Owl and Rodent Research Group (BORG), School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Hafidzi Mohd Noor
- Plant Protection Department, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hasber Salim
- Barn Owl and Rodent Research Group (BORG), School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia.
- Vector Control and Research Unit, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia.
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Hopf-Dennis C, Kaye S, Hollingshead N, Brooks M, Bunting E, Abou-Madi N. Prevalence of anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and utility of clotting time assays to detect coagulopathy. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2022; 31:919-932. [PMID: 35622198 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-022-02558-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) continue to be used across the United States as a method for controlling pest rodent species. As a consequence, wild birds of prey are exposed to these toxicants by eating poisoned prey items. ARs prevent the hepatic recycling of vitamin K and thereby impede the post-translational processing of coagulation factors II, VII, IX, and X that are required for procoagulant complex assembly. Through this mechanism of action, ARs cause hemorrhage and death in their target species. Various studies have documented the persistence of these contaminants in birds of prey but few have attempted to use affordable and accessible diagnostic tests to diagnose coagulopathy in free-ranging birds of prey. In our study free-ranging red-tailed hawks were found to be exposed to difethialone and brodifacoum. Eleven of sixteen (68%) livers tested for AR exposure had detectable residues. Difethialone was found in 1/16 (6%), and brodifacoum was detected in 10/16 (62%) liver samples that were tested for rodenticide residues. Difethialone was found at a concentration of 0.18 ug/g wet weight and brodifacoum concentrations ranged from 0.003-0.234 ug/g wet weight. Two out of 34 (6%) RTHA assessed for blood rodenticide had brodifacoum in serum with measured concentrations of 0.003 and 0.006 ug/g. The range of clotting times in the prothrombin time (PT) and Russell's viper venom time assays for control RTHA were 16.7 to 39.7 s and 11.5 to 91.8 s, respectively. One study bird was diagnosed with clinical AR intoxication with a brodifacoum levels in blood of 0.006 and 0.234 ug/g wet weight in blood and liver respectively, a packed cell volume (PCV) of 19%, and PT and RVVT times of >180 s. No correlation was found between PT and RVVT in the control or free-range RTHA, and there was no relationship found between the presence of liver anticoagulant residues and clotting times in the PT and RVVT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Hopf-Dennis
- Janet L. Swanson Wildlife Hospital and the Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Sarrah Kaye
- Staten Island Zoo, 614 Broadway, Staten Island, NY, 10310, USA
| | - Nicholas Hollingshead
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Marjory Brooks
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Elizabeth Bunting
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Noha Abou-Madi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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9
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Thornton GL, Stevens B, French SK, Shirose LJ, Reggeti F, Schrier N, Parmley EJ, Reid A, Jardine CM. Anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in raptors from Ontario, Canada. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:34137-34146. [PMID: 35034316 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-18529-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are used globally to control rodent pest infestations in both urban and agricultural settings. It is well documented that non-target wildlife, including predatory birds, are at risk for secondary anticoagulant exposure and toxicosis through the prey they consume. However, there have been no large-scale studies of AR exposure in raptors in Ontario, Canada since new Health Canada legislation was implemented in 2013 in an attempt to limit exposure in non-target wildlife. Our objective was to measure levels of ARs in wild raptors in southern Ontario to assess their exposure. We collected liver samples from 133 raptors representing 17 species submitted to the Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative (CWHC) in Ontario, Canada, between 2017 and 2019. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to quantitatively assess the level of exposure to 14 first- and second-generation ARs. Detectable levels of one or more ARs were found in 82 of 133 (62%) tested raptors, representing 12 species. The most commonly detected ARs were bromadiolone (54/133), difethialone (40/133), and brodifacoum (33/133). Of AR-positive birds, 34/82 (42%) contained residues of multiple (> 1) anticoagulant compounds. Our results indicate that AR exposure is common in raptors living in southern Ontario, Canada. Our finding that brodifacoum, difethialone, and bromadiolone were observed alone or in combination with one another in the majority of our sampled raptors indicates that legislative changes in Canada may not be protecting non-target wildlife as intended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace L Thornton
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
- Department of Pathobiology, Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Brian Stevens
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
- Department of Pathobiology, Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Shannon K French
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
- Department of Pathobiology, Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Leonard J Shirose
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
- Department of Pathobiology, Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Felipe Reggeti
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Nick Schrier
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - E Jane Parmley
- Department of Pathobiology, Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Alexandra Reid
- Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 1 Stone Rd W, Guelph, ON, N1G 4Y2, Canada
| | - Claire M Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
- Department of Pathobiology, Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
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10
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Moriceau MA, Lefebvre S, Fourel I, Benoit E, Buronfosse-Roque F, Orabi P, Rattner BA, Lattard V. Exposure of predatory and scavenging birds to anticoagulant rodenticides in France: Exploration of data from French surveillance programs. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 810:151291. [PMID: 34748846 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 10/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Wild raptors are widely used to assess exposure to different environmental contaminants, including anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs). ARs are used on a global scale for rodent control, and act by disruption of the vitamin K cycle that results in haemorrhage usually accompanied by death within days. Some ARs are highly persistent and bioaccumulative, which can cause significant exposure of non-target species. We characterized AR exposure in a heterogeneous sample of dead raptors collected over 12 years (2008-2019) in south-eastern France. Residue analysis of 156 liver samples through LC-MS/MS revealed that 50% (78/156) were positive for ARs, with 13.5% (21/156) having summed second-generation AR (SGAR) concentrations >100 ng/g ww. While SGARs were commonly detected (97.4% of positive samples), first-generation ARs were rarely found (7.7% of positive samples). ARs were more frequently detected and at greater concentration in predators (prevalence: 82.5%) than in scavengers (38.8%). Exposure to multiple ARs was common (64.1% of positive samples). While chlorophacinone exposure decreased over time, an increasing exposure trend was observed for the SGAR brodifacoum, suggesting that public policies may not be efficient at mitigating risk of exposure for non-target species. Haemorrhage was observed in 88 birds, but AR toxicosis was suspected in only 2 of these individuals, and no difference in frequency of haemorrhage was apparent in birds displaying summed SGAR levels above or below 100 ng/g ww. As for other contaminants, 17.2% of liver samples (11/64) exhibited Pb levels compatible with sub-clinical poisoning (>6 μg/g dw), with 6.3% (4/64) above the threshold for severe/lethal poisoning (>30 μg/g dw). Nine individuals with Pb levels >6 μg/g dw also had AR residues, demonstrating exposure to multiple contaminants. Broad toxicological screening for other contaminants was positive for 18 of 126 individuals, with carbofuran and mevinphos exposure being the suspected cause of death of 17 birds. Our findings demonstrate lower but still substantial AR exposure of scavenging birds compared to predatory birds, and also illustrate the complexity of diagnosing AR toxicosis through forensic investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meg-Anne Moriceau
- USC1233 RS2GP, INRAe, VetAgro Sup, Univ Lyon, F69 280 Marcy-l'Étoile, France; CNITV, VetAgro Sup, 1 avenue Bourgelat, 69 280 Marcy-l'Étoile, France
| | - Sébastien Lefebvre
- USC1233 RS2GP, INRAe, VetAgro Sup, Univ Lyon, F69 280 Marcy-l'Étoile, France
| | - Isabelle Fourel
- USC1233 RS2GP, INRAe, VetAgro Sup, Univ Lyon, F69 280 Marcy-l'Étoile, France
| | - Etienne Benoit
- USC1233 RS2GP, INRAe, VetAgro Sup, Univ Lyon, F69 280 Marcy-l'Étoile, France
| | | | - Pascal Orabi
- French Bird Protection League (LPO France), France
| | - Barnett A Rattner
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Ecological Science Center, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - Virginie Lattard
- USC1233 RS2GP, INRAe, VetAgro Sup, Univ Lyon, F69 280 Marcy-l'Étoile, France.
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11
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Rached A, Lattard V, Fafournoux A, Caruel H, Fourel I, Benoit E, Lefebvre S. Comparative pharmacokinetics of difethialone stereoisomers in male and female rats and mice: development of an intra- and inter-species model to predict the suitable formulation mix. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:535-544. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03210-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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12
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Selemani M, Makundi RH, Massawe AW, Mhamphi G, Mulungu LS, Belmain SR. Impact of contraceptive hormones on the reproductive potential of male and female commensal black rats (Rattus rattus). Integr Zool 2021; 17:991-1001. [PMID: 34047451 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The black rat is considered one of the world's top pests. With increased restrictions on rodenticides, new alternatives to manage rats are urgently needed. Research on the use of contraceptive hormones, levonorgestrel (LE), and quinestrol (QU), have been evaluated against some rodent species, and this research is the first study to assess these on black rats. Hormones were incorporated into rodent bait at 10 and 50 ppm concentrations singly and in combination (EP-1). Groups of 10 animals of each sex were fed the baits over 7 days. Lower bait consumption was observed with slight body mass reductions. On dissection, it was observed that the uterus was in a state of edema and male reproductive organs weighed less with reduced sperm counts/motility. The 2 most promising baits, 50 ppm QU and EP-1, were used to assess impact on pregnancy and litter size. Pregnancy was reduced from 70% success when both males and females consumed untreated bait, down to 30% when males had consumed contraceptive bait but females had not, and down to 0% when females had consumed contraceptive bait, regardless of whether they had paired with a treated or untreated male. Litter size in the untreated pairs was 8 pups, but only 4 pups in those cases where the male only had consumed the contraceptive. Further studies should investigate how long the effect lasts and its reversibility. Field studies at the population level may also shed light on the practicality of using contraceptive baits for black rats in different habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mwajabu Selemani
- Department of Wildlife Management, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Rhodes H Makundi
- Pest Management Centre, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Apia W Massawe
- Pest Management Centre, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Ginethon Mhamphi
- Pest Management Centre, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Loth S Mulungu
- Pest Management Centre, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
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13
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Rattner BA, Harvey JJ. Challenges in the interpretation of anticoagulant rodenticide residues and toxicity in predatory and scavenging birds. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2021; 77:604-610. [PMID: 33052019 DOI: 10.1002/ps.6137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are part of the near billion-dollar rodenticide industry. Numerous studies have documented the presence of ARs in nontarget wildlife, with evidence of repeated exposure to second-generation ARs. While birds are generally less sensitive to ARs than target rodent species, in some locations predatory and scavenging birds are exposed by consumption of such poisoned prey and, depending on dose and frequency of exposure, exhibit effects of intoxication that can result in death. Evidence of hemorrhage in conjunction with summed hepatic AR residues >0.1-0.2 mg kg-1 liver wet weight are often used as criteria to diagnose ARs as the likely cause of death. In this review focusing on birds of prey and scavengers, we discuss AR potency, coagulopathy, toxicokinetics and long-lasting effects of residues, and the role of nutrition and vitamin K status on toxicity, and identify some research needs. A more complete understanding of the factors affecting AR toxicity in nontarget wildlife could enable regulators and natural resource managers to better predict and even mitigate risk. Published 2020. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barnett A Rattner
- Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, US Geological Survey, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - Joel J Harvey
- Columbia Environmental Research Center, US Geological Survey, Columbia, MO, USA
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14
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Rached A, Moriceau MA, Serfaty X, Lefebvre S, Lattard V. Biomarkers Potency to Monitor Non-target Fauna Poisoning by Anticoagulant Rodenticides. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:616276. [PMID: 33426034 PMCID: PMC7785832 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.616276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The widespread use of pesticides to control agricultural pests is a hot topic on the public scene of environmental health. Selective pest control for minimum environmental impact is a major goal of the environmental toxicology field, notably to avoid unintended poisoning in different organisms. Anticoagulant rodenticides cause abnormal blood coagulation process; they have been widely used to control rodents, allowing inadvertent primary and secondary exposure in domestic animals and non-target predatory wildlife species through direct ingestion of rodenticide-containing bait or by consumption of poisoned prey. To report toxic effect, the most common approach is the measurement of liver or plasma residues of anticoagulant rodenticides in dead or intoxicated animals showing clinical symptoms. However, one major challenge is that literature currently lacks a hepatic or plasma concentration threshold value for the differentiation of exposure from toxicity. Regarding the variation in pharmacology properties of anticoagulant rodenticides inter- and intra-species, the dose-response relationship must be defined for each species to prejudge the relative risk of poisoning. Beyond that, biomarkers are a key solution widely used for ecological risk assessment of contaminants. Since anticoagulant rodenticides (AR) have toxic effects at the biochemical level, biomarkers can serve as indicators of toxic exposure. In this sense, toxicological knowledge of anticoagulant rodenticides within organisms is an important tool for defining sensitive, specific, and suitable biomarkers. In this review, we provide an overview of the toxicodynamic and toxicokinetic parameters of anticoagulant rodenticides in different animal species. We examine different types of biomarkers used to characterize and differentiate the exposure and toxic effects of anticoagulant rodenticide, showing the strengths and weaknesses of the assays. Finally, we describe possible new biomarkers and highlight their capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Virginie Lattard
- USC 1233 RS2GP, VetAgro Sup, INRA, University of Lyon, Marcy l'Etoile, France
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15
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Rattner BA, Volker SF, Lankton JS, Bean TG, Lazarus RS, Horak KE. Brodifacoum Toxicity in American Kestrels (Falco sparverius) with Evidence of Increased Hazard on Subsequent Anticoagulant Rodenticide Exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2020; 39:468-481. [PMID: 31707739 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A seminal question in ecotoxicology is the extent to which contaminant exposure evokes prolonged effects on physiological function and fitness. A series of studies were undertaken with American kestrels ingesting environmentally realistic concentrations of the second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide (SGAR) brodifacoum. Kestrels fed brodifacoum at 0.3, 1.0, or 3.0 µg/g diet wet weight for 7 d exhibited dose-dependent hemorrhage, histopathological lesions, and coagulopathy (prolonged prothrombin and Russell's viper venom times). Following termination of a 7-d exposure to 0.5 µg brodifacoum/g diet, prolonged blood clotting time returned to baseline values within 1 wk, but brodifacoum residues in liver and kidney persisted during the 28-d recovery period (terminal half-life estimates >50 d). To examine the hazard of sequential anticoagulant rodenticide (AR) exposure, kestrels were exposed to either the first-generation AR chlorophacinone (1.5 µg/g diet) or the SGAR brodifacoum (0.5 µg/g diet) for 7 d and, following a recovery period, challenged with a low dose of chlorophacinone (0.75 µg/g diet) for 7 d. In brodifacoum-exposed kestrels, the challenge exposure clearly prolonged prothrombin time compared to naive controls and kestrels previously exposed to chlorophacinone. These data provide evidence that the SGAR brodifacoum may have prolonged effects that increase the toxicity of subsequent AR exposure. Because free-ranging predatory and scavenging wildlife are often repeatedly exposed to ARs, such protracted toxicological effects need to be considered in hazard and risk assessments. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:468-481. © 2020 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barnett A Rattner
- Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, US Geological Survey, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
| | - Steven F Volker
- National Wildlife Research Center, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, US Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Julia S Lankton
- National Wildlife Health Center, US Geological Survey, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Thomas G Bean
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Rebecca S Lazarus
- Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, US Geological Survey, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
| | - Katherine E Horak
- National Wildlife Research Center, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, US Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
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16
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Bedoya-Pérez MA, Smith KL, Kevin RC, Luo JL, Crowther MS, McGregor IS. Parameters That Affect Fear Responses in Rodents and How to Use Them for Management. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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17
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Nattrass N, Stephens J, Loubser JJ. Animal welfare and ecology in the contested ethics of rodent control in Cape Town. JOURNAL OF URBAN ECOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/jue/juz008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractThere is growing concern globally about the inhumane treatment of ‘pest’ animals, including rodents, and about the ecological consequences of rodenticides, notably the poisoning of non-target wildlife like raptors and scavengers. Recent contestation between Environmental Health (EH) officials in Khayelitsha, Cape Town’s largest African township, and the National Council for Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NSPCA) illustrates the tension that can arise between innovative ecologically-focused strategies and existing legislation and animal protection practices. In 2013/14 EH officials introduced a job-creation project to trap and drown rats, describing it as ‘humane’ because it avoided poison thereby posing no danger to wildlife such as owls. The NSPCA, however, halted the project, arguing that drowning was both inhumane and illegal. Death by poison is also inhumane but the South Africa’s Animals Protection Act (1962) allows it (and trapping and hunting) to be used against ‘pests’/‘vermin’. The NSPCA, which has never challenged the Act for allowing the inhumane treatment of these animals, used it to trump local preferences. A representative survey from Khayelitsha showed that there was some support for an NSPCA-like position (14% thought that drowning was cruel and that workers should not be allowed to trap and drown rats) but that the majority (70%) indicated that they were both concerned about the poisoning of non-target animals and supported the continuation of the trapping and drowning project. This was not a contestation over whether animals should be protected, but over how to do this, and which animals to include.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoli Nattrass
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa (iCWild), University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Cape Town, South Africa
- Centre for Social Science Research (CSSR), University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Cape Town, South Africa
- School of Economics, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jed Stephens
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa (iCWild), University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Cape Town, South Africa
- Centre for Social Science Research (CSSR), University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jorich Johann Loubser
- Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa (iCWild), University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Cape Town, South Africa
- Centre for Social Science Research (CSSR), University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Cape Town, South Africa
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18
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Franklin AB, Carlson PC, Rex A, Rockweit JT, Garza D, Culhane E, Volker SF, Dusek RJ, Shearn-Bochsler VI, Gabriel MW, Horak KE. Grass is not always greener: rodenticide exposure of a threatened species near marijuana growing operations. BMC Res Notes 2018; 11:94. [PMID: 29391058 PMCID: PMC5796583 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-018-3206-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Marijuana (Cannabis spp.) growing operations (MGO) in California have increased substantially since the mid-1990s. One environmental side-effect of MGOs is the extensive use of anticoagulant rodenticides (AR) to prevent damage to marijuana plants caused by wild rodents. In association with a long-term demographic study, we report on an observation of brodifacoum AR exposure in a threatened species, the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina), found freshly dead within 669-1347 m of at least seven active MGOs. RESULTS Liver and blood samples from the dead northern spotted owl were tested for 12 rodenticides. Brodifacoum was the only rodenticide detected in the liver (33.3-36.3 ng/g) and blood (0.48-0.54 ng/ml). Based on necropsy results, it was unclear what role brodifacoum had in the death of this bird. However, fatal AR poisoning has been previously reported in owls with relatively low levels of brodifacoum residues in the liver. One likely mechanism of AR transmission from MGOs to northern spotted owls in California is through ingestion of AR contaminated prey that frequent MGOs. The proliferation of MGOs with their use of ARs in forested landscapes used by northern spotted owls may pose an additional stressor for this threatened species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan B Franklin
- USDA-APHIS-WS National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 Laporte Ave, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA.
| | - Peter C Carlson
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Angela Rex
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Jeremy T Rockweit
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - David Garza
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Emily Culhane
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Steven F Volker
- USDA-APHIS-WS National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 Laporte Ave, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA
| | - Robert J Dusek
- U. S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Valerie I Shearn-Bochsler
- U. S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Mourad W Gabriel
- Integral Ecology Research Center, 239 Railroad Avenue, Blue Lake, CA, 95525, USA
| | - Katherine E Horak
- USDA-APHIS-WS National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 Laporte Ave, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA
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