Sophorolipids

Valorization of oil refinery by-products: production of sophorolipids utilizing fatty acid distillates and their potential antibacterial, anti-biofilm, and antifungal activities

Starmerella bombicola is a native yeast strain producing sophorolipids as secondary metabolites. This study explores the production, characterization, and biological activities of sophorolipids and investigates the antimicrobial, anti-biofilm, and antifungal properties of sophorolipids produced from oil refinery wastes by the yeast Starmerella bombicola. The present work demonstrated that S. bombicola MTCC 1910 when grown in oil refinery wastes namely palm fatty acid distillates and soy fatty acid distillates enhanced the rate of sophorolipids production drastically in comparison to vegetable oil, sunflower oil used as hydrophobic feedstock. Sophorolipid yields were 18.14, 37.21, and 46.1 g/L with sunflower oil, palm, and soy fatty acid distillates respectively. The crude biosurfactants were characterized using TLC, FTIR, and HPLC revealing to be acetylated sophorolipids containing both the acidic and lactonic isomeric forms. The surface lowering and emulsifying properties of the sophorolipids from refinery wastes were significantly higher than the sunflower oil-derived sophorolipids. Also, all the sophorolipids exhibited strong antibacterial properties (minimum inhibitory concentrations were between 50 and 200 µg mL-1) against Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis and were validated with morphological analysis by Scanning electron microscopy. All the sophorolipids were potent biofilm inhibitors and eradicators (minimum biofilm inhibitory and eradication concentrations were between 12.5 to 1000 µg mL-1) for all the tested organisms. Furthermore, antifungal activities were also found to exhibit about 16-56% inhibition at 1 mg mL-1 for fungal mycelial growth. Therefore, this endeavour of sophorolipids production using palm and soy fatty acid distillates not only opens up a window for the bioconversion of industrial wastes into productive biosurfactants but also concludes that sophorolipids from oil refinery wastes are potent antimicrobial, anti-biofilm, and antifungal agents, highlighting their potential in biotechnological and medical applications.

Optimization of the primary purification process of extracting sphorolipid from the fermentation broth to achieve a higher yield and purity

Sophorolipid (SL) is a surface-active glycolipid biosurfactant with promising industrial applications. It is synthesised by fermentation of hydrophobic and hydrophilic substrates using selected non-pathogenic yeasts. However, its applications are limited by high production costs and ineffective product recovery in downstream purification stages. Natural sophorolipids are produced in six to nine different hydrophobic sophorosides, where the carboxyl end of the fatty acid is either free, which is known as the acidic or open form, or it can be esterified internally to produce the lactonic form. The present study deals with the screening and selection of suitable solvents for the extraction of acidic and lactonic SL from fermentation broth. The optimisation study involves exhaustive extraction with the six different immiscible solvents ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, methylene dichloride, methyl tert.-butyl ether, methyl iso-butyl ketone and methyl ethyl ketone. The partition coefficient (Kd), which is the ratio of the solute concentration in the organic layer compared to the aqueous layer, determines the performance measurement of the extraction process in terms of yield and purity of the desired solute. The factors that influence exhaustive extraction were the broth to solvent ratio and the extraction stages. The optimal extraction conditions for the highest possible yield were a broth to solvent ratio of 1:1 and a number of extraction steps of 2. Methylene dichloride showed better results in terms of yield and selectivity in the extraction of acidic and lactonic SL from the fermentation broth compared to the other solvents investigated. For lactonic SL, the highest Kd value determined was 36.6 and for acidic SL the highest Kd value was 1.14.

Non-conventional yeasts for food and additives production in a circular economy perspective

Yeast species have been spontaneously participating in food production for millennia, but the scope of applications was greatly expanded since their key role in beer and wine fermentations was clearly acknowledged. The workhorse for industry and scientific research has always been Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It occupies the largest share of the dynamic yeast market, that could further increase thanks to the better exploitation of other yeast species. Food-related 'non-conventional' yeasts (NCY) represent a treasure trove for bioprospecting, with their huge untapped potential related to a great diversity of metabolic capabilities linked to niche adaptations. They are at the crossroad of bioprocesses and biorefineries, characterized by low biosafety risk and produce food and additives, being also able to contribute to production of building blocks and energy recovered from the generated waste and by-products. Considering that the usual pattern for bioprocess development focuses on single strains or species, in this review we suggest that bioprospecting at the genus level could be very promising. Candida, Starmerella, Kluyveromyces and Lachancea were briefly reviewed as case studies, showing that a taxonomy- and genome-based rationale could open multiple possibilities to unlock the biotechnological potential of NCY bioresources.

Remediation of Aviation Kerosene-Contaminated Soil by Sophorolipids from Candida bombicola CB 2107

Yeast-derived biosurfactants may substitute or complement chemical surfactants as green reagents to extract petroleum hydrocarbons from contaminated soil. The effectiveness of contaminant clean-up by sophorolipids was tested on kerosene-contaminated soil with reference to traditional synthetic surfactants. The sophorolipids produced by the yeast Candida bombicola CB 2107, cultivated with the carbon sources 10 g/L glucose and 10 g/L rapeseed oil, were most effective in contaminant removal. This biosurfactant revealed a critical micelle concentration of 108 mg/L which was close to that of Triton X-100 (103 mg/L), the synthetic surfactant considered as reference. It outperformed Triton X-100 in reducing kerosene concentrations (C10–C40) in contaminated soils. In a soil initially containing 1080 mg/kg of C10–C40, the concentration was reduced to 350 mg/kg using the biosurfactant, and to 670 mg/kg using Triton-X. In the soil with initial concentration of 472 mg/kg, concentrations were reduced to 285 and 300 mg/kg for biosurfactant and Triton X-100, respectively. Sophorolipids have the potential to replace synthetic surfactants. Properties and performance of the biosurfactants, however, strongly differ depending on the yeast and the growing conditions during production.

Current status in biotechnological production and applications of glycolipid biosurfactants

Biosurfactants are natural compounds with surface activity and emulsifying properties produced by several types of microorganisms and have been considered an interesting alternative to synthetic surfactants. Glycolipids are promising biosurfactants, due to low toxicity, biodegradability, and chemical stability in different conditions and also because they have many biological activities, allowing wide applications in different fields. In this review, we addressed general information about families of glycolipids, rhamnolipids, sophorolipids, mannosylerythritol lipids, and trehalose lipids, describing their chemical and surface characteristics, recent studies using alternative substrates, and new strategies to improve of production, beyond their specificities. We focus in providing recent developments and trends in biotechnological process and medical and industrial applications.

Enhanced Soil Washing of PCB by Sophorolipids from Transformer Oil Contaminated Soil

The effects of surfactants including synthetic surfactants and biosurfactants on 7 indicator PCBs removal from transformer oil-contaminated soil by using batch soil washing assessment were investigated. The sophorolipids (SLs) produced by Wickerhamiella domercqiae var. sophorolipid, especially lactonic SLs exhibited much higher PCB removal efficiency than SDS and Tween-80. The Σ7 PCB removal by 1.0 g/L lactonic SLs, 5.0 g/L of total SLs and acidic SLs was 30.2%, 30% and 25.4%, respectively. Removal efficiency of lower chlorinated congeners was significantly increased by adding sophorolipid, but higher chlorinated congeners removal efficiency was not further improved. 0.5 g/L lactonic SLs was efficient for PCB101 and 118 removal while 1.0 g/L lactonic SLs was efficient for PCB28 and 52 removal. The removal percentage was not increased with the increase of lactonic SLs concentration. The fermentation broth (yeast extract as nitrogen source) of W. domercqiae that was used directly on PCB removal was of superior efficiency.