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Han M, Lin XY, Cui G, Chen S, Wu W, Mi N, Wang J, Xiao CY, Zhang X, Lu X, Li JT. A Single-center, Open-label, Parallel Control Study Comparing the Pharmacokinetics and Safety of a Single Oral Dose of Roflumilast and Its Active Metabolite Roflumilast N-oxide in Healthy Chinese and Caucasian Volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Drug Dev 2023; 12:314-323. [PMID: 36484261 DOI: 10.1002/cpdd.1209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Roflumilast is a phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor which treats chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Roflumilast N-oxide is the major metabolite of roflumilast with a similar mechanism of action to roflumilast. Although racial differences in roflumilast drug disposition have been observed, the necessity of dose adjustment is subject to debate. This study compares the pharmacokinetics of a single 500 μg dose of roflumilast in healthy Chinese and Caucasian subjects under uniform conditions. Chinese subjects were found to have longer t1/2 and higher AUC0-t and Cmax than Caucasian subjects. The point estimates on the geometric mean of AUC0-t in Chinese subjects were 22% higher for roflumilast and 46% higher for roflumilast N-oxide. Point estimates on the geometric mean of Cmax were 9% and 24% higher for roflumilast and roflumilast N-oxide, respectively. Total phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) inhibitory (tPDE4i) activity, a theoretical parameter that describes the combined contribution to PDE4 inhibitory activity of roflumilast and roflumilast N-oxide, was 44% higher in Chinese subjects than in Caucasian subjects. With about a 10-fold higher plasma AUC compared to the parent roflumilast and a much longer observed half-life, roflumilast N-oxide has been estimated to contribute about 90% of tPDE4i, with 10% attributed to the parent compound roflumilast. Following body weight normalization, these figures were lower but remained significant. Safety analysis showed signs of reduced tolerance or different pharmacodynamic response to roflumilast in Chinese recipients than in Caucasians. Our results suggest that Chinese patients should receive a dose of roflumilast lower than 500 μg daily during future clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai Han
- Drug Clinical Trial Research Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao-Yan Lin
- Tianjin Chasesun Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., B01 Entrepreneurship Headquarters, Tianjin, China
| | - Gang Cui
- Drug Clinical Trial Research Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Shuai Chen
- Tianjin Chasesun Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., B01 Entrepreneurship Headquarters, Tianjin, China
| | - Wei Wu
- Drug Clinical Trial Research Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Na Mi
- Drug Clinical Trial Research Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Drug Clinical Trial Research Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Chun-Yan Xiao
- Drug Clinical Trial Research Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Drug Clinical Trial Research Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xing Lu
- Drug Clinical Trial Research Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jin-Tong Li
- Drug Clinical Trial Research Center, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
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Treatment of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis with an Inhibitor of Phosphodiesterase-8 (PDE8). Cells 2022; 11:cells11040660. [PMID: 35203312 PMCID: PMC8870644 DOI: 10.3390/cells11040660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
After decades of development, inhibitors targeting cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) expressed in leukocytes have entered clinical practice for the treatment of inflammatory disorders, with three PDE4 inhibitors being in clinical use as therapeutics for psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and atopic dermatitis. In contrast, the PDE8 family that is upregulated in pro-inflammatory T cells is a largely unexplored therapeutic target. We have previously demonstrated a role for the PDE8A-Raf-1 kinase complex in the regulation of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide 35–55 (MOG35–55) activated CD4+ effector T cell adhesion and locomotion by a mechanism that differs from PDE4 activity. In this study, we explored the in vivo treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model for multiple sclerosis (MS) induced in mice immunized with MOG using the PDE8-selective inhibitor PF-04957325. For treatment in vivo, mice with EAE were either subcutaneously (s.c.) injected three times daily (10 mg/kg/dose), or were implanted subcutaneously with Alzet mini-osmotic pumps to deliver the PDE8 inhibitor (15.5 mg/kg/day). The mice were scored daily for clinical signs of paresis and paralysis which were characteristic of EAE. We observed the suppression of the clinical signs of EAE and a reduction of inflammatory lesion formation in the CNS by histopathological analysis through the determination of the numbers of mononuclear cells isolated from the spinal cord of mice with EAE. The PDE8 inhibitor treatment reduces the accumulation of both encephalitogenic Th1 and Th17 T cells in the CNS. Our study demonstrates the efficacy of targeting PDE8 as a treatment of autoimmune inflammation in vivo by reducing the inflammatory lesion load.
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Muñoz-Montecinos C, Romero A, Sepúlveda V, Vira MÁ, Fehrmann-Cartes K, Marcellini S, Aguilera F, Caprile T, Fuentes R. Turning the Curve Into Straight: Phenogenetics of the Spine Morphology and Coordinate Maintenance in the Zebrafish. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 9:801652. [PMID: 35155449 PMCID: PMC8826430 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.801652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The vertebral column, or spine, provides mechanical support and determines body axis posture and motion. The most common malformation altering spine morphology and function is adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS), a three-dimensional spinal deformity that affects approximately 4% of the population worldwide. Due to AIS genetic heterogenicity and the lack of suitable animal models for its study, the etiology of this condition remains unclear, thus limiting treatment options. We here review current advances in zebrafish phenogenetics concerning AIS-like models and highlight the recently discovered biological processes leading to spine malformations. First, we focus on gene functions and phenotypes controlling critical aspects of postembryonic aspects that prime in spine architecture development and straightening. Second, we summarize how primary cilia assembly and biomechanical stimulus transduction, cerebrospinal fluid components and flow driven by motile cilia have been implicated in the pathogenesis of AIS-like phenotypes. Third, we highlight the inflammatory responses associated with scoliosis. We finally discuss recent innovations and methodologies for morphometrically characterize and analyze the zebrafish spine. Ongoing phenotyping projects are expected to identify novel and unprecedented postembryonic gene functions controlling spine morphology and mutant models of AIS. Importantly, imaging and gene editing technologies are allowing deep phenotyping studies in the zebrafish, opening new experimental paradigms in the morphometric and three-dimensional assessment of spinal malformations. In the future, fully elucidating the phenogenetic underpinnings of AIS etiology in zebrafish and humans will undoubtedly lead to innovative pharmacological treatments against spinal deformities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Muñoz-Montecinos
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Grupo de Procesos en Biología del Desarrollo (GDeP), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Adrián Romero
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Grupo de Procesos en Biología del Desarrollo (GDeP), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Vania Sepúlveda
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Grupo de Procesos en Biología del Desarrollo (GDeP), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - María Ángela Vira
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Grupo de Procesos en Biología del Desarrollo (GDeP), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Karen Fehrmann-Cartes
- Núcleo de Investigaciones Aplicadas en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas, Universidad de las Américas, Concepción, Chile
| | - Sylvain Marcellini
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Grupo de Procesos en Biología del Desarrollo (GDeP), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Felipe Aguilera
- Grupo de Procesos en Biología del Desarrollo (GDeP), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Teresa Caprile
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Grupo de Procesos en Biología del Desarrollo (GDeP), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- *Correspondence: Teresa Caprile, ; Ricardo Fuentes,
| | - Ricardo Fuentes
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Grupo de Procesos en Biología del Desarrollo (GDeP), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- *Correspondence: Teresa Caprile, ; Ricardo Fuentes,
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Epstein PM, Basole C, Brocke S. The Role of PDE8 in T Cell Recruitment and Function in Inflammation. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:636778. [PMID: 33937235 PMCID: PMC8085600 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.636778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Inhibitors targeting cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) expressed in leukocytes have entered clinical practice to treat inflammatory disorders, with three PDE4 inhibitors currently in clinical use as therapeutics for psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, atopic dermatitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In contrast, the PDE8 family that is upregulated in pro-inflammatory T cells is a largely unexplored therapeutic target. It was shown that PDE8A plays a major role in controlling T cell and breast cancer cell motility, including adhesion to endothelial cells under physiological shear stress and chemotaxis. This is a unique function of PDE8 not shared by PDE4, another cAMP specific PDE, employed, as noted, as an anti-inflammatory therapeutic. Additionally, a regulatory role was shown for the PDE8A-rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (Raf)-1 kinase signaling complex in myelin antigen reactive CD4+ effector T cell adhesion and locomotion by a mechanism differing from that of PDE4. The PDE8A-Raf-1 kinase signaling complex affects T cell motility, at least in part, via regulating the LFA-1 integrin mediated adhesion to ICAM-1. The findings that PDE8A and its isoforms are expressed at higher levels in naive and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)35–55 activated effector T (Teff) cells compared to regulatory T (Treg) cells and that PDE8 inhibition specifically affects MOG35–55 activated Teff cell adhesion, indicates that PDE8A could represent a new beneficial target expressed in pathogenic Teff cells in CNS inflammation. The implications of this work for targeting PDE8 in inflammation will be discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Epstein
- Department of Cell Biology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
| | - Chaitali Basole
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
| | - Stefan Brocke
- Department of Immunology, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, United States
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5
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Phillips JE. Inhaled Phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) Inhibitors for Inflammatory Respiratory Diseases. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:259. [PMID: 32226383 PMCID: PMC7080983 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
PDE4 inhibitors can suppress a variety of inflammatory cell functions that contribute to their anti-inflammatory actions in respiratory diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma. The systemically delivered PDE4 inhibitor roflumilast has been approved for use in a subset of patients with severe COPD with chronic bronchitis and a history of exacerbations. Use of systemically delivered PDE4 inhibitors has been limited by systemic side effects. Inhaled PDE4 inhibitors have been considered as a viable alternative to increase tolerability and determine the maximum therapeutic potential of PDE4 inhibition in respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan E. Phillips
- Department of Inflammation Research, Amgen Research, Thousand Oaks, CA, United States
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6
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Li H, Zuo J, Tang W. Phosphodiesterase-4 Inhibitors for the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1048. [PMID: 30386231 PMCID: PMC6199465 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 297] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4), mainly present in immune cells, epithelial cells, and brain cells, manifests as an intracellular non-receptor enzyme that modulates inflammation and epithelial integrity. Inhibition of PDE4 is predicted to have diverse effects via the elevation of the level of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and the subsequent regulation of a wide array of genes and proteins. It has been identified that PDE4 is a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of diverse pulmonary, dermatological, and severe neurological diseases. Over the past decades, numerous PDE4 inhibitors have been designed and synthesized, among which roflumilast, apremilast, and crisaborole were approved for the treatment of inflammatory airway diseases, psoriatic arthritis, and atopic dermatitis, respectively. It is regrettable that the dramatic efficacies of a drug are often accompanied by adverse effects, such as nausea, emesis, and gastrointestinal reactions. However, substantial advances have been made to mitigate the adverse effects and obtain better benefit-to-risk ratio. This review highlights the dialectical role of PDE4 in drug discovery and the disquisitive details of certain PDE4 inhibitors to provide an overview of the topics that still need to be addressed in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Li
- Laboratory of Anti-inflammation, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.,School of Pharmacy, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jianping Zuo
- School of Pharmacy, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Laboratory of Immunopharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Tang
- Laboratory of Anti-inflammation, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.,School of Pharmacy, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Open Studio for Druggability Research of Marine Natural Products, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
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7
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PDE3 Inhibitors Repurposed as Treatments for Age-Related Cognitive Impairment. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:4306-4316. [PMID: 30311144 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1374-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
As the population of older individuals grows worldwide, researchers have increasingly focused their attention on identifying key molecular targets of age-related cognitive impairments, with the aim of developing possible therapeutic interventions. Two such molecules are the intracellular cyclic nucleotides, cAMP and cGMP. These second messengers mediate fundamental aspects of brain function relevant to memory, learning, and cognitive function. Consequently, phosphodiesterases (PDEs), which hydrolyze cAMP and cGMP, are promising targets for the development of cognition-enhancing drugs. Inhibitors that target PDEs work by elevating intracellular cAMP. In this review, we provide an overview of different PDE inhibitors, and then we focus on pharmacological and physiological effects of PDE3 inhibitors in the CNS and peripheral tissues. Finally, we discuss findings from experimental and preliminary clinical studies and the potential beneficial effects of the PDE3 inhibitor cilostazol on age-related cognitive impairments. In the innovation pipeline of pharmaceutical development, the antiplatelet agent cilostazol has come into the spotlight as a novel treatment for mild cognitive impairment. Overall, the repurposing of cilostazol may represent a potentially promising way to treat mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's disease, and vascular dementia. In this review, we present a brief summary of cAMP signaling and different PDE inhibitors, followed by a discussion of the pharmacological and physiological role of PDE3 inhibitors. In this context, we discuss the repurposing of a PDE3 inhibitor, cilostazol, as a potential treatment for age-related cognitive impairment based on recent research.
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8
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Blaazer AR, Singh AK, de Heuvel E, Edink E, Orrling KM, Veerman JJN, van den Bergh T, Jansen C, Balasubramaniam E, Mooij WJ, Custers H, Sijm M, Tagoe DNA, Kalejaiye TD, Munday JC, Tenor H, Matheeussen A, Wijtmans M, Siderius M, de Graaf C, Maes L, de Koning HP, Bailey DS, Sterk GJ, de Esch IJP, Brown DG, Leurs R. Targeting a Subpocket in Trypanosoma brucei Phosphodiesterase B1 (TbrPDEB1) Enables the Structure-Based Discovery of Selective Inhibitors with Trypanocidal Activity. J Med Chem 2018; 61:3870-3888. [PMID: 29672041 PMCID: PMC5949723 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Several trypanosomatid
cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs)
possess a unique, parasite-specific cavity near the ligand-binding
region that is referred to as the P-pocket. One of these enzymes, Trypanosoma brucei PDE B1 (TbrPDEB1), is considered a drug
target for the treatment of African sleeping sickness. Here, we elucidate
the molecular determinants of inhibitor binding and reveal that the
P-pocket is amenable to directed design. By iterative cycles of design,
synthesis, and pharmacological evaluation and by elucidating the structures
of inhibitor-bound TbrPDEB1, hPDE4B, and hPDE4D complexes, we have
developed 4a,5,8,8a-tetrahydrophthalazinones as the first selective
TbrPDEB1 inhibitor series. Two of these, 8 (NPD-008)
and 9 (NPD-039), were potent (Ki = 100 nM) TbrPDEB1 inhibitors with antitrypanosomal effects
(IC50 = 5.5 and 6.7 μM, respectively). Treatment
of parasites with 8 caused an increase in intracellular
cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels and severe disruption
of T. brucei cellular organization, chemically validating
trypanosomal PDEs as therapeutic targets in trypanosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoni R Blaazer
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Abhimanyu K Singh
- School of Biosciences , University of Kent , Canterbury CT2 7NJ , U.K
| | - Erik de Heuvel
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Ewald Edink
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Kristina M Orrling
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Chimed Jansen
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | | | - Wouter J Mooij
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Hans Custers
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Maarten Sijm
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Daniel N A Tagoe
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation , University of Glasgow , Glasgow G12 8TA , U.K
| | - Titilola D Kalejaiye
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation , University of Glasgow , Glasgow G12 8TA , U.K
| | - Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation , University of Glasgow , Glasgow G12 8TA , U.K
| | | | - An Matheeussen
- Laboratory for Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene , University of Antwerp , 2610 Wilrijk , Belgium
| | - Maikel Wijtmans
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Marco Siderius
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Chris de Graaf
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Louis Maes
- Laboratory for Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene , University of Antwerp , 2610 Wilrijk , Belgium
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation , University of Glasgow , Glasgow G12 8TA , U.K
| | | | - Geert Jan Sterk
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Iwan J P de Esch
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - David G Brown
- School of Biosciences , University of Kent , Canterbury CT2 7NJ , U.K
| | - Rob Leurs
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules, Medicines and Systems , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , 1081 HZ Amsterdam , The Netherlands
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9
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Electrophysiological determination of phosphodiesterase-6 inhibitor inhibition constants in intact mouse retina. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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10
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Ercu M, Klussmann E. Roles of A-Kinase Anchoring Proteins and Phosphodiesterases in the Cardiovascular System. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2018; 5:jcdd5010014. [PMID: 29461511 PMCID: PMC5872362 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd5010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) and cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are essential enzymes in the cyclic adenosine 3′-5′ monophosphate (cAMP) signaling cascade. They establish local cAMP pools by controlling the intensity, duration and compartmentalization of cyclic nucleotide-dependent signaling. Various members of the AKAP and PDE families are expressed in the cardiovascular system and direct important processes maintaining homeostatic functioning of the heart and vasculature, e.g., the endothelial barrier function and excitation-contraction coupling. Dysregulation of AKAP and PDE function is associated with pathophysiological conditions in the cardiovascular system including heart failure, hypertension and atherosclerosis. A number of diseases, including autosomal dominant hypertension with brachydactyly (HTNB) and type I long-QT syndrome (LQT1), result from mutations in genes encoding for distinct members of the two classes of enzymes. This review provides an overview over the AKAPs and PDEs relevant for cAMP compartmentalization in the heart and vasculature and discusses their pathophysiological role as well as highlights the potential benefits of targeting these proteins and their protein-protein interactions for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Ercu
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine Berlin (MDC), Berlin 13125, Germany.
| | - Enno Klussmann
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine Berlin (MDC), Berlin 13125, Germany.
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), partner site Berlin 13347, Germany.
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11
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Xie C, Ramirez A, Wang Z, Chow MSS, Hao J. A simple and sensitive HPLC-MS/MS method for quantification of eggmanone in rat plasma and its application to pharmacokinetics. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2018; 153:37-43. [PMID: 29459234 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2018.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Allosteric phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibitors are highly sought after due to their important anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer therapeutic effects. We recently identified Eggmanone, an extraordinarily selective allosteric PDE4 inhibitor displaying favorable drug properties. However, a specific analytic method of Eggmanone in serum and its pharmacokinetics have not been reported yet. In this study, we developed a rapid and sensitive high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric (HPLC-MS/MS) method to determine Eggmanone concentrations in rat plasma. This assay method was validated in terms of specificity, linearity, sensitivity, accuracy, precision, matrix effect, recovery and stability, and was applied to a pharmacokinetic study in rats following intravenous injection of Eggmanone at doses of 1 and 3 mg/kg. The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) of this assay was 5 ng/mL and the linear calibration curve was acquired with R2 > 0.99 between 5 and 1000 ng/m. The intra-day and inter-day precision was evaluated with the coefficient of variations less than 11.09%, whereas the mean accuracy ranged from 98.38% to 105.13%. The assay method exhibited good recovery and negligible matrix effect. The samples were stable under all the experimental conditions. The plasma concentrations of Eggmanone were detected and quantified over 24 h with the terminal elimination half-live of 3.57 ± 1.80 h and 5.92 ± 3.34 h for the low dose (1 mg/kg) and high dose (3 mg/kg) respectively. In summary, the present method provides a robust, fast and sensitive analytical approach for quantification of Eggmanone in plasma and was successfully applied to a pharmacokinetic study in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Xie
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
| | - Ana Ramirez
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA; Department of Biology, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA
| | - Zhijun Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Marshall B. Ketchum University, Fullerton, CA 92831, USA; College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
| | - Moses S S Chow
- College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
| | - Jijun Hao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA; Graduate College of Biomedical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, 91766, USA.
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12
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Mikami S, Sasaki S, Asano Y, Ujikawa O, Fukumoto S, Nakashima K, Oki H, Kamiguchi N, Imada H, Iwashita H, Taniguchi T. Discovery of an Orally Bioavailable, Brain-Penetrating, in Vivo Active Phosphodiesterase 2A Inhibitor Lead Series for the Treatment of Cognitive Disorders. J Med Chem 2017; 60:7658-7676. [PMID: 28759228 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b00709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we describe the discovery of a potent, selective, brain-penetrating, in vivo active phosphodiesterase (PDE) 2A inhibitor lead series. To identify high-quality leads suitable for optimization and enable validation of the physiological function of PDE2A in vivo, structural modifications of the high-throughput screening hit 18 were performed. Our lead generation efforts revealed three key potency-enhancing functionalities with minimal increases in molecular weight (MW) and no change in topological polar surface area (TPSA). Combining these structural elements led to the identification of 6-methyl-N-((1R)-1-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)propyl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine-3-carboxamide (38a), a molecule with the desired balance of preclinical properties. Further characterization by cocrystal structure analysis of 38a bound to PDE2A uncovered a unique binding mode and provided insights into its observed potency and PDE selectivity. Compound 38a significantly elevated 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) levels in mouse brain following oral administration, thus validating this compound as a useful pharmacological tool and an attractive lead for future optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Mikami
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Shigekazu Sasaki
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Yasutomi Asano
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Osamu Ujikawa
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Shoji Fukumoto
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Kosuke Nakashima
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Oki
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Naomi Kamiguchi
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Haruka Imada
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Hiroki Iwashita
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Takahiko Taniguchi
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited , 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
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13
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Tetsi L, Charles AL, Paradis S, Lejay A, Talha S, Geny B, Lugnier C. Effects of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) on mitochondrial skeletal muscle functions. Cell Mol Life Sci 2017; 74:1883-1893. [PMID: 28039524 PMCID: PMC11107545 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-016-2446-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria play a critical role in skeletal muscle metabolism and function, notably at the level of tissue respiration, which conduct muscle strength as well as muscle survival. Pathological conditions induce mitochondria dysfunctions notably characterized by free oxygen radical production disturbing intracellular signaling. In that way, the second messengers, cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP, control intracellular signaling at the physiological and transcription levels by governing phosphorylation cascades. Both nucleotides are specifically and selectively hydrolyzed in their respective 5'-nucleotide by cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs), which constitute a multi-genic family differently tissue distributed and subcellularly compartmentalized. These PDEs are presently recognized as therapeutic targets for cardiovascular, pulmonary, and neurologic diseases. However, very few data concerning cyclic nucleotides and PDEs in skeletal muscle, specifically in mitochondria, are reported in the literature. The knowledge of PDE implication in mitochondrial signaling would be helpful for resolving critical mitochondrial dysfunctions in skeletal muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliane Tetsi
- EA 3072 "Mitochondrie, Stress Oxydant et Protection Musculaire", Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Faculté de Médecine, Institut de Physiologie, Université de Strasbourg, 4, Rue Kirschleger, 67085, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Anne-Laure Charles
- EA 3072 "Mitochondrie, Stress Oxydant et Protection Musculaire", Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Faculté de Médecine, Institut de Physiologie, Université de Strasbourg, 4, Rue Kirschleger, 67085, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Stéphanie Paradis
- EA 3072 "Mitochondrie, Stress Oxydant et Protection Musculaire", Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Faculté de Médecine, Institut de Physiologie, Université de Strasbourg, 4, Rue Kirschleger, 67085, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Anne Lejay
- EA 3072 "Mitochondrie, Stress Oxydant et Protection Musculaire", Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Faculté de Médecine, Institut de Physiologie, Université de Strasbourg, 4, Rue Kirschleger, 67085, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Samy Talha
- EA 3072 "Mitochondrie, Stress Oxydant et Protection Musculaire", Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Faculté de Médecine, Institut de Physiologie, Université de Strasbourg, 4, Rue Kirschleger, 67085, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Bernard Geny
- EA 3072 "Mitochondrie, Stress Oxydant et Protection Musculaire", Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Faculté de Médecine, Institut de Physiologie, Université de Strasbourg, 4, Rue Kirschleger, 67085, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Claire Lugnier
- EA 3072 "Mitochondrie, Stress Oxydant et Protection Musculaire", Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle, Faculté de Médecine, Institut de Physiologie, Université de Strasbourg, 4, Rue Kirschleger, 67085, Strasbourg Cedex, France.
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14
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Rasti B, Schaduangrat N, Shahangian SS, Nantasenamat C. Exploring the origin of phosphodiesterase inhibition via proteochemometric modeling. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra02332d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A proteochemometric study of a set of phosphodiesterase 4B and 4D inhibitors sheds light on the origin of their inhibition and selectivities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behnam Rasti
- Department of Microbiology
- Faculty of Basic Sciences
- Lahijan Branch
- Islamic Azad University (IAU)
- Lahijan
| | - Nalini Schaduangrat
- Center of Data Mining and Biomedical Informatics
- Faculty of Medical Technology
- Mahidol University
- Bangkok 10700
- Thailand
| | - S. Shirin Shahangian
- Department of Biology
- Faculty of Sciences
- University of Guilan
- Rasht 41938-33697
- Iran
| | - Chanin Nantasenamat
- Center of Data Mining and Biomedical Informatics
- Faculty of Medical Technology
- Mahidol University
- Bangkok 10700
- Thailand
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15
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Abstract
Theophylline is an orally acting xanthine that has been used since 1937 for the treatment of respiratory diseases including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). However, in most treatment guidelines, xanthines have now been consigned to third-line therapy because of their narrow therapeutic window and propensity for drug-drug interactions. However, lower than conventional doses of theophylline considered to be bronchodilator are now known to have anti-inflammatory actions of relevance to the treatment of respiratory disease. The molecular mechanism(s) of action of theophylline are not well understood, but several potential targets have been suggested including non-selective inhibition of phosphodiesterases (PDE), inhibition of phosphoinositide 3-kinase, adenosine receptor antagonism and increased activity of certain histone deacetylases. Although theophylline has a narrow therapeutic window, other xanthines are in clinical use that are claimed to have a better tolerability such as doxofylline and bamifylline. Nonetheless, xanthines still play an important role in the treatment of asthma and COPD as they can show clinical benefit in patients who are refractory to glucocorticosteroid therapy, and withdrawal of xanthines from patients causes worsening of disease, even in patients taking concomitant glucocorticosteroids.More recently the orally active selective PDE4 inhibitor, roflumilast, has been introduced into clinical practice for the treatment of severe COPD on top of gold standard treatment. This drug has been shown to improve lung function in patients with severe COPD and to reduce exacerbations, but is dose limited by a range side effect, particularly gastrointestinal side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Spina
- The Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, Franklin Wilkins Building, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - C P Page
- The Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, Franklin Wilkins Building, London, SE1 9NH, UK.
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16
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Koga H, Recke A, Vidarsson G, Pas HH, Jonkman MF, Hashimoto T, Kasprick A, Ghorbanalipoor S, Tenor H, Zillikens D, Ludwig RJ. PDE4 Inhibition as Potential Treatment of Epidermolysis Bullosa Acquisita. J Invest Dermatol 2016; 136:2211-2220. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2016.06.619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Revised: 06/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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17
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Vang AG, Basole C, Dong H, Nguyen RK, Housley W, Guernsey L, Adami AJ, Thrall RS, Clark RB, Epstein PM, Brocke S. Differential Expression and Function of PDE8 and PDE4 in Effector T cells: Implications for PDE8 as a Drug Target in Inflammation. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:259. [PMID: 27601994 PMCID: PMC4993990 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Abolishing the inhibitory signal of intracellular cAMP is a prerequisite for effector T (Teff) cell function. The regulation of cAMP within leukocytes critically depends on its degradation by cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs). We have previously shown that PDE8A, a PDE isoform with 40–100-fold greater affinity for cAMP than PDE4, is selectively expressed in Teff vs. regulatory T (Treg) cells and controls CD4+ Teff cell adhesion and chemotaxis. Here, we determined PDE8A expression and function in CD4+ Teff cell populations in vivo. Using magnetic bead separation to purify leukocyte populations from the lung draining hilar lymph node (HLN) in a mouse model of ovalbumin-induced allergic airway disease (AAD), we found by Western immunoblot and quantitative (q)RT-PCR that PDE8A protein and gene expression are enhanced in the CD4+ T cell fraction over the course of the acute inflammatory disease and recede at the late tolerant non-inflammatory stage. To evaluate PDE8A as a potential drug target, we compared the selective and combined effects of the recently characterized highly potent PDE8-selective inhibitor PF-04957325 with the PDE4-selective inhibitor piclamilast (PICL). As previously shown, PF-04957325 suppresses T cell adhesion to endothelial cells. In contrast, we found that PICL alone increased firm T cell adhesion to endothelial cells by ~20% and significantly abrogated the inhibitory effect of PF-04957325 on T cell adhesion by over 50% when cells were co-exposed to PICL and PF-04957325. Despite its robust effect on T cell adhesion, PF-04957325 was over two orders of magnitude less efficient than PICL in suppressing polyclonal Teff cell proliferation, and showed no effect on cytokine gene expression in these cells. More importantly, PDE8 inhibition did not suppress proliferation and cytokine production of myelin-antigen reactive proinflammatory Teff cells in vivo and in vitro. Thus, targeting PDE8 through PF-04957325 selectively regulates Teff cell interactions with endothelial cells without marked immunosuppression of proliferation, while PDE4 inhibition has partially opposing effects. Collectively, our data identify PF-04957325 as a novel function-specific tool for the suppression of Teff cell adhesion and indicate that PDE4 and PDE8 play unique and non-redundant roles in the control of Teff cell functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda G Vang
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health CenterFarmington, CT, USA; Department of Diagnostic Medicine, National Hospital of the Faroe IslandsTórshavn, Faroe Islands
| | - Chaitali Basole
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Hongli Dong
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Rebecca K Nguyen
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - William Housley
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Linda Guernsey
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Alexander J Adami
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Roger S Thrall
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Robert B Clark
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Paul M Epstein
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Stefan Brocke
- Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center Farmington, CT, USA
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18
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Bianchi L, Del Duca E, Romanelli M, Saraceno R, Chimenti S, Chiricozzi A. Pharmacodynamic assessment of apremilast for the treatment of moderate-to-severe plaque psoriasis. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2016; 12:1121-8. [PMID: 27376729 DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2016.1206886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease affecting 2-3% of the population. Certain systemic drugs currently available for its treatment could be associated, in the long term, with organ toxicity and adverse events, thus, clinical monitoring throughout treatment is required. Moreover, tolerability issues, parenteral administration, and barriers to patient access, such as high cost and specialist management lead to treatment failure. AREAS COVERED Apremilast is an oral small molecule inhibitor of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4i). PDE is the major enzyme class responsible for the hydrolysis of cyclic adenosine monophosphate in immune cells (cAMP). With PDE4 inhibition, apremilast works intracellularly to modulate pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory mediator production critically involved in psoriasis. The aim of this paper is to focus the attention on apremilast pharmacodynamics effects, its efficacy and safety in treating moderate-to-severe plaque psoriasis. EXPERT OPINION Apremilast is an effective and well-tolerated option in treating moderate-to-severe plaque psoriasis. Its safety profile and the oral administration offer significant advantages in prescribing apremilast for the treatment of psoriasis, particularly in some subsets of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Bianchi
- a Department of Systems Medicine, Division of Dermatology , University of Rome Tor Vergata , Rome , Italy
| | - Ester Del Duca
- a Department of Systems Medicine, Division of Dermatology , University of Rome Tor Vergata , Rome , Italy
| | - Marco Romanelli
- b Division of Dermatology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine , University of Pisa , Pisa , Italy
| | - Rosita Saraceno
- a Department of Systems Medicine, Division of Dermatology , University of Rome Tor Vergata , Rome , Italy
| | - Sergio Chimenti
- a Department of Systems Medicine, Division of Dermatology , University of Rome Tor Vergata , Rome , Italy
| | - Andrea Chiricozzi
- b Division of Dermatology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine , University of Pisa , Pisa , Italy
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19
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Corradini E, Klaasse G, Leurs U, Heck AJR, Martin NI, Scholten A. Charting the interactome of PDE3A in human cells using an IBMX based chemical proteomics approach. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2016. [PMID: 26205238 DOI: 10.1039/c5mb00142k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
In the cell the second messenger cyclic nucleotides cAMP and cGMP mediate a wide variety of external signals. Both signaling molecules are degraded by the superfamily of phosphodiesterases (PDEs) consisting of more than 50 different isoforms. Several of these PDEs are implicated in disease processes inspiring the quest for and synthesis of selective PDE inhibitors, that unfortunately have led to very mixed successes in clinical trials. This may be partially caused by their pharmacological action. Accumulating data suggests that small differences between different PDE isoforms may already result in specific tissue distributions, cellular localization and different involvement in higher order signal protein complexes. The role of PDEs in these higher order signal protein complexes has only been marginally addressed, as no screening methodology is available to address this in a more comprehensive way. Affinity based chemical proteomics is a relatively new tool to identify specific protein-protein interactions. Here, to study the interactome of PDEs, we synthesized a broad spectrum PDE-capturing resin based on the non-selective PDE inhibitor 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX). Chemical proteomics characterization of this resin in HeLa cell lysates led to the capture of several different PDEs. Combining the IBMX-resin with in-solution competition with the available more selective PDE inhibitors, cilostamide and papaverine, allowed us to selectively probe the interactome of PDE3A in HeLa cells. Besides known interactors such as the family of 14-3-3 proteins, PDE3A was found to associate with a PP2A complex composed of a regulatory, scaffold and catalytic subunit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Corradini
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Science Faculty, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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20
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Makin L, Gluenz E. cAMP signalling in trypanosomatids: role in pathogenesis and as a drug target. Trends Parasitol 2015; 31:373-9. [PMID: 26004537 PMCID: PMC4534343 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2015.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Revised: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei adenylate cyclases are implicated in modulation of host immune response and social motility. First effectors downstream of cAMP signalling were identified in Trypanosoma cruzi and T. brucei. Crystal structures reveal a unique pocket in trypanosomatid phosphodiesterases. Trypanosomatid phosphodiesterase inhibitors are promising drug candidates.
Despite recent research linking cAMP signalling to virulence in trypanosomatids and detailed studies of trypanosomatid adenylyl cyclases (ACs) and phosphodiesterases (PDEs) since their discoveries 40 years ago, downstream components of the pathway and their biological functions have remained remarkably elusive. However, in recent years, significant discoveries have been made: a role for parasite ACs has been proposed in cytokinesis, evasion of the host immune response, and social motility. cAMP phosphodiesterases PDEB1 and PDEB2 were found to be essential for survival and virulence of Trypanosoma brucei and, in Trypanosoma cruzi, PDEC2 was shown to be required for normal osmoregulation. As we discuss here, these breakthroughs have led to an ongoing surge in the development of PDE inhibitors as lead compounds for trypanocidal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Makin
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Eva Gluenz
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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21
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Martinez A, Gil C. cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitors: promising drugs for inflammatory and neurological diseases. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2014; 24:1311-21. [PMID: 25284693 DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2014.968127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION PDEs are key enzymes in the adenosine and guanosine cyclic nucleotides (cAMP and cGMP) signaling cascade. Their inhibition increases cyclic nucleotide levels inside the cell. Thus, pharmacological modulation of PDE activity can have profound effects on the function of cells and organ systems throughout the body. AREAS COVERED Among the large PDE families, only PDE4, PDE7 and PDE8 are cAMP-specific hydrolyzing enzymes. cAMP is an important second messenger not only by its involvement in a vast number of physiological processes but also by activation of protein kinase A, exchange protein activated by cAMP (Epac) and cAMP response element-binding (CREB) or cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. Clearly, such enzymes represent ideal drug targets for the pharmacological treatment of many pathologies. The discovery and development of small molecules targeting cAMP-specific PDEs reported in the last 5 years is the focus of the present review. EXPERT OPINION The first PDE4 inhibitors recently reached the market, having avoided, by different strategies, their dose-limiting side effects (after more than two decades of drug development). Meanwhile, new cAMP-specific PDE7 and PDE8 inhibitors emerged as effective and safe drugs for severe unmet diseases. The therapeutic potential of these inhibitors will be tested in the near future, as many of these drug candidates are ready to start clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Martinez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC) , Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid , Spain
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22
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Oliver BGG, Robinson P, Peters M, Black J. Viral infections and asthma: an inflammatory interface? Eur Respir J 2014; 44:1666-81. [PMID: 25234802 DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00047714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways in which the majority of patients respond to treatment with corticosteroids and β₂-adrenoceptor agonists. Acute exacerbations of asthma substantially contribute to disease morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs, and are not restricted to patients who are not compliant with their treatment regimens. Given that respiratory viral infections are the principal cause of asthma exacerbations, this review article will explore the relationship between viral infections and asthma, and will put forward hypotheses as to why virus-induced exacerbations occur. Potential mechanisms that may explain why current therapeutics do not fully inhibit virus-induced exacerbations, for example, β₂-adrenergic desensitisation and corticosteroid insensitivity, are explored, as well as which aspects of virus-induced inflammation are likely to be attenuated by current therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian G G Oliver
- School of Medical and Molecular Biosciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Paul Robinson
- Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia Dept of Respiratory Medicine, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia The Children's Hospital at Westmead Clinical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mathew Peters
- Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia Dept of Thoracic Medicine, Concord General Hospital, Concord, Australia
| | - Judy Black
- Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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23
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Ahmad F, Murata T, Shimizu K, Degerman E, Maurice D, Manganiello V. Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases: important signaling modulators and therapeutic targets. Oral Dis 2014; 21:e25-50. [PMID: 25056711 DOI: 10.1111/odi.12275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
By catalyzing hydrolysis of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases are critical regulators of their intracellular concentrations and their biological effects. As these intracellular second messengers control many cellular homeostatic processes, dysregulation of their signals and signaling pathways initiate or modulate pathophysiological pathways related to various disease states, including erectile dysfunction, pulmonary hypertension, acute refractory cardiac failure, intermittent claudication, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and psoriasis. Alterations in expression of PDEs and PDE-gene mutations (especially mutations in PDE6, PDE8B, PDE11A, and PDE4) have been implicated in various diseases and cancer pathologies. PDEs also play important role in formation and function of multimolecular signaling/regulatory complexes, called signalosomes. At specific intracellular locations, individual PDEs, together with pathway-specific signaling molecules, regulators, and effectors, are incorporated into specific signalosomes, where they facilitate and regulate compartmentalization of cyclic nucleotide signaling pathways and specific cellular functions. Currently, only a limited number of PDE inhibitors (PDE3, PDE4, PDE5 inhibitors) are used in clinical practice. Future paths to novel drug discovery include the crystal structure-based design approach, which has resulted in generation of more effective family-selective inhibitors, as well as burgeoning development of strategies to alter compartmentalized cyclic nucleotide signaling pathways by selectively targeting individual PDEs and their signalosome partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Ahmad
- Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
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24
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Darout E, Menhaji‐Klotz E, Chappie TA. PDE4: Recent Medicinal Chemistry Strategies to Mitigate Adverse Effects. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/9783527682348.ch04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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25
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Schafer PH, Parton A, Capone L, Cedzik D, Brady H, Evans JF, Man HW, Muller GW, Stirling DI, Chopra R. Apremilast is a selective PDE4 inhibitor with regulatory effects on innate immunity. Cell Signal 2014; 26:2016-29. [PMID: 24882690 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2014.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Apremilast, an oral small molecule inhibitor of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4), is in development for chronic inflammatory disorders, and has shown efficacy in psoriasis, psoriatic arthropathies, and Behçet's syndrome. In March 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration approved apremilast for the treatment of adult patients with active psoriatic arthritis. The properties of apremilast were evaluated to determine its specificity, effects on intracellular signaling, gene and protein expression, and in vivo pharmacology using models of innate and adaptive immunity. Apremilast inhibited PDE4 isoforms from all four sub-families (A1A, B1, B2, C1, and D2), with IC50 values in the range of 10 to 100 nM. Apremilast did not significantly inhibit other PDEs, kinases, enzymes, or receptors. While both apremilast and thalidomide share a phthalimide ring structure, apremilast lacks the glutarimide ring and thus fails to bind to cereblon, the target of thalidomide action. In monocytes and T cells, apremilast elevated intracellular cAMP and induced phosphorylation of the protein kinase A substrates CREB and activating transcription factor-1 while inhibiting NF-κB transcriptional activity, resulting in both up- and down-regulation of several genes induced via TLR4. Apremilast reduced interferon-α production by plasmacytoid dendritic cells and inhibited T-cell cytokine production, but had little effect on B-cell immunoglobulin secretion. In a transgenic T-cell and B-cell transfer murine model, apremilast (5mg/kg/day p.o.) did not affect clonal expansion of either T or B cells and had little or no effect on their expression of activation markers. The effect of apremilast on innate immunity was tested in the ferret lung neutrophilia model, which allows monitoring of the known PDE4 inhibitor gastrointestinal side effects (nausea and vomiting). Apremilast significantly inhibited lung neutrophilia at 1mg/kg, but did not induce significant emetic reflexes at doses <30 mg/kg. Overall, the pharmacological effects of apremilast are consistent with those of a targeted PDE4 inhibitor, with selective effects on innate immune responses and a wide therapeutic index compared to its gastrointestinal side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- P H Schafer
- Department of Translational Development, Celgene Corporation, Summit, NJ, USA.
| | - A Parton
- Department of Translational Development, Celgene Corporation, Summit, NJ, USA
| | - L Capone
- Department of Translational Development, Celgene Corporation, Summit, NJ, USA
| | - D Cedzik
- Department of Translational Development, Celgene Corporation, Summit, NJ, USA
| | - H Brady
- Department of Translational Development, Celgene Corporation, Summit, NJ, USA
| | - J F Evans
- Department of Biology, PharmAkea, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - H-W Man
- Department of Process Chemistry, Celgene Corporation, Summit, NJ, USA
| | - G W Muller
- GWM Consulting, Rancho Santa Fe, CA, USA
| | | | - R Chopra
- Department of Translational Development, Celgene Corporation, Summit, NJ, USA
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Maurice DH, Ke H, Ahmad F, Wang Y, Chung J, Manganiello VC. Advances in targeting cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2014; 13:290-314. [PMID: 24687066 DOI: 10.1038/nrd4228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 561] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) catalyse the hydrolysis of cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP, thereby regulating the intracellular concentrations of these cyclic nucleotides, their signalling pathways and, consequently, myriad biological responses in health and disease. Currently, a small number of PDE inhibitors are used clinically for treating the pathophysiological dysregulation of cyclic nucleotide signalling in several disorders, including erectile dysfunction, pulmonary hypertension, acute refractory cardiac failure, intermittent claudication and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. However, pharmaceutical interest in PDEs has been reignited by the increasing understanding of the roles of individual PDEs in regulating the subcellular compartmentalization of specific cyclic nucleotide signalling pathways, by the structure-based design of novel specific inhibitors and by the development of more sophisticated strategies to target individual PDE variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald H Maurice
- Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston K7L3N6, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hengming Ke
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Faiyaz Ahmad
- Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Branch, The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Yousheng Wang
- Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Jay Chung
- Genetics and Developmental Biology Center, The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Vincent C Manganiello
- Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Branch, The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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Azevedo MF, Faucz FR, Bimpaki E, Horvath A, Levy I, de Alexandre RB, Ahmad F, Manganiello V, Stratakis CA. Clinical and molecular genetics of the phosphodiesterases (PDEs). Endocr Rev 2014; 35:195-233. [PMID: 24311737 PMCID: PMC3963262 DOI: 10.1210/er.2013-1053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are enzymes that have the unique function of terminating cyclic nucleotide signaling by catalyzing the hydrolysis of cAMP and GMP. They are critical regulators of the intracellular concentrations of cAMP and cGMP as well as of their signaling pathways and downstream biological effects. PDEs have been exploited pharmacologically for more than half a century, and some of the most successful drugs worldwide today affect PDE function. Recently, mutations in PDE genes have been identified as causative of certain human genetic diseases; even more recently, functional variants of PDE genes have been suggested to play a potential role in predisposition to tumors and/or cancer, especially in cAMP-sensitive tissues. Mouse models have been developed that point to wide developmental effects of PDEs from heart function to reproduction, to tumors, and beyond. This review brings together knowledge from a variety of disciplines (biochemistry and pharmacology, oncology, endocrinology, and reproductive sciences) with emphasis on recent research on PDEs, how PDEs affect cAMP and cGMP signaling in health and disease, and what pharmacological exploitations of PDEs may be useful in modulating cyclic nucleotide signaling in a way that prevents or treats certain human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monalisa F Azevedo
- Section on Endocrinology Genetics (M.F.A., F.R.F., E.B., A.H., I.L., R.B.d.A., C.A.S.), Program on Developmental Endocrinology Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland 20892; Section of Endocrinology (M.F.A.), University Hospital of Brasilia, Faculty of Medicine, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70840-901, Brazil; Group for Advanced Molecular Investigation (F.R.F., R.B.d.A.), Graduate Program in Health Science, Medical School, Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Paraná, Curitiba 80215-901, Brazil; Cardiovascular Pulmonary Branch (F.A., V.M.), National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892; and Pediatric Endocrinology Inter-Institute Training Program (C.A.S.), NICHD, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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Beghè B, Rabe KF, Fabbri LM. Phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor therapy for lung diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 188:271-8. [PMID: 23656508 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201301-0021pp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are a superfamily of enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of cAMP and/or cyclic guanosine monophosphate (GMP) to their inactive form. PDE4 is the main selective cAMP-metabolizing enzyme in inflammatory and immune cells. Because PDE4 is highly expressed in leukocytes and other inflammatory cells involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory lung diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), inhibition of PDE4 has been predicted to have an antiinflammatory effect and thus therapeutic efficacy. The limited and inconsistent efficacy and side effects of the early compounds made their further development less desirable in asthma, given the excellent efficacy/tolerability ratio of inhaled steroids. The lack of effective antiinflammatory drug treatment for COPD has thus shifted the interest in development toward COPD. Roflumilast, the only PDE4 inhibitor that has reached the market because of the good efficacy/tolerability ratio, is recommended for patients with COPD with severe airflow limitation, symptoms of chronic bronchitis, and a history of exacerbations, whose disease is not adequately controlled by long-acting bronchodilators. Albeit safe, it maintains significant side effects (diarrhea, nausea, weight loss) that make it intolerable in some patients. Future developments of PDE4 inhibitors include extended indications of roflumilast (1) in patients with COPD, and (2) in other respiratory (e.g., asthma) and nonrespiratory chronic inflammatory/metabolic conditions (e.g., diabetes), as well as (3) the development of new molecules with PDE4 inhibitory properties with an improved efficacy/tolerability profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Beghè
- Section of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Oncology, Haematology, and Respiratory Diseases, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Policlinico di Modena, Modena, Italy
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Downregulation of NOX4 expression by roflumilast N-oxide reduces markers of fibrosis in lung fibroblasts. Mediators Inflamm 2013; 2013:745984. [PMID: 24027357 PMCID: PMC3763264 DOI: 10.1155/2013/745984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor roflumilast prevents bleomycin- (BLM-) induced lung fibrosis in animal models. However, its mechanism of action remains unknown. We investigated whether roflumilast N-oxide (RNO), the active metabolite of roflumilast, can modulate in vitro the oxidative effects of BLM on human lung fibroblasts (HLF). In addition, since BLM increases the production of F₂-isoprostanes that have per se fibrogenic activity, the effect of RNO on oxidative stress and fibrogenesis induced by the F₂-isoprostane 8-epi-PGF₂α was investigated. HLF were preincubated either with the vehicle or with RNO and exposed to either BLM or 8-epi-PGF₂α. Proliferation and collagen synthesis were assessed as [(3)H]-thymidine and [(3)H]-proline incorporation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and F₂-isoprostanes were measured. NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) protein and mRNA were also evaluated. BLM increased both cell proliferation and collagen synthesis and enhanced ROS and F₂-isoprostane production. These effects were significantly prevented by RNO. Also, RNO significantly reduced the increase in both NOX4 mRNA and protein, induced by BLM. Finally, 8-epi-PGF₂α per se stimulated HLF proliferation, collagen synthesis, and NOX4 expression and ROS generation, and RNO prevented these effects. Thus, the antifibrotic effect of RNO observed in vivo may be related to its ability to mitigate ROS generation via downregulation of NOX4.
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Abramovits W, Oquendo M. Introduction to Autoinflammatory Syndromes and Diseases. Dermatol Clin 2013; 31:363-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.det.2013.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Lahu G, Nassr N, Hünnemeyer A. Pharmacokinetic evaluation of roflumilast. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2011; 7:1577-91. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2011.632409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Abstract
Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are promising targets for pharmacological intervention. The presence of multiple PDE genes, diversity of the isoforms produced from each gene, selective tissue and cellular expression of the isoforms, compartmentation within cells, and an array of conformations of PDE proteins are some of the properties that challenge the development of drugs that target these enzymes. Nevertheless, many of the characteristics of PDEs are also viewed as unique opportunities to increase specificity and selectivity when designing novel compounds for certain therapeutic indications. This chapter provides a summary of the major concepts related to the design and use of PDE inhibitors. The overall structure and properties of the catalytic domain and conformations of PDEs are summarized in light of the most recent X-ray crystal structures. The distinctive properties of catalytic domains of different families as well as the technical challenges associated with probing PDE properties and their interactions with small molecules are discussed. The effect of posttranslational modifications and protein-protein interactions are additional factors to be considered when designing PDE inhibitors. PDE inhibitor interaction with other proteins needs to be taken into account and is also discussed.
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