Exosome and Secretion: Action On?

Preliminary construction of non-coding RNAs and ceRNA regulatory networks mediated by exosomes in porcine follicular fluid

BACKGROUND

Follicles are fundamental units of the ovary, regulated intricately during development. Exosomes and ovarian granulosa cells (OGCs) play pivotal roles in follicular development, yet the regulatory mechanisms governing exosomes remain elusive.

RESULTS

High-throughput sequencing was employed to evaluate the complete transcript expression profiles of six samples (three porcine ovarian granulosa cells-exosome co-culture samples (GCE) and three porcine ovarian granulosa cells (POGCs) samples). Differential expression analysis revealed 924 lncRNAs, 35 circRNAs, 49 miRNAs, and 9823 mRNAs in the GCE group. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses indicated enrichment of differentially expressed transcripts in pathways related to cell proliferation and apoptosis. Furthermore, a ceRNA regulatory network comprising 43 lncRNAs, 6 circRNAs, 11 miRNAs, and 126 mRNAs was constructed based on intergene co-expression correlations. Seven miRNAs associated with cell proliferation and apoptosis regulation were identified within this network, encompassing 92 subnet pairs as candidate genes for further exploration of exosome regulatory mechanisms. Additionally, preliminary verification at the cellular level demonstrated that exosomal miR-200b enhances the viability of POGCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Transcriptome analysis unveiled a pivotal candidate ceRNA network potentially implicated in exosome-mediated regulation of granulosa cell proliferation and apoptosis, thereby influencing porcine follicular development. These findings offer insights into the molecular mechanisms of follicular fluid exosome regulation, encompassing both coding and non-coding RNA perspectives.

Extracellular vesicles miR-574-5p and miR-181a-5p as prognostic markers in NSCLC patients treated with nivolumab

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized the management of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), although patient survival is still unsatisfactory. Accurate predictive markers capable of personalizing the treatment of patients with NSCLC are still lacking. Circulating extracellular vesicles involved in cell-to-cell communications through miRNAs (EV-miRs) transfer are promising markers. Plasma from 245 patients with advanced NSCLC who received nivolumab as second-line therapy was collected and analyzed. EV-miRnome was profiled on 174/245 patients by microarray platform, and selected EV-miRs were validated by qPCR. A prognostic model combining EV-miR and clinical variables was built using stepwise Cox regression analysis and tested on an independent patient cohort (71/245). EV-PD-L1 gene copy number was assessed by digital PCR. For 54 patients with disease control, EV-miR changes at best response versus baseline were investigated by microarray and validated by qPCR. EV-miRNome profiling at baseline identified two EV-miRs (miR-181a-5p and miR-574-5p) that, combined with performance status, are capable of discriminating patients unlikely from those that are likely to benefit from immunotherapy (median overall survival of 4 months or higher than 9 months, respectively). EV-PD-L1 digital evaluation reported higher baseline copy number in patients at increased risk of mortality, without improving the prognostic score. Best response EV-miRNome profiling selected six deregulated EV-miRs (miR19a-3p, miR-20a-5p, miR-142-3p, miR-1260a, miR-1260b, and miR-5100) in responding patients. Their longitudinal monitoring highlighted a significant downmodulation already in the first treatment cycles, which lasted more than 6 months. Our results demonstrate that EV-miRs are promising prognostic markers for NSCLC patients treated with nivolumab.

Exosomal miRNA-92a derived from cancer-associated fibroblasts promote invasion and metastasis in breast cancer by regulating G3BP2

Cancer-associated Fibroblasts (CAFs) exert a tumor-promoting effect in various cancers, including breast cancer. CAFs secrete exosomes containing miRNA and proteins, influencing the tumor microenvironment. In this study, we identified CAF-derived exosomes that transport functional miR-92a from CAFs to tumor cells, thereby intensifying the aggressiveness of breast cancer. CAFs downregulate the expression of G3BP2 in breast cancer cells, and a significant elevation in miR-92a levels in CAF-derived exosomes was observed. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrate that miR-92a enhances breast cancer cell migration and invasion by directly targeting G3BP2, functioning as a tumor-promoting miRNA. We validated that the RNA-binding proteins SNRPA facilitate the transfer of CAF-derived exosomal miR-92a to breast cancer cells. The reduction of G3BP2 protein by CAF-derived exosomes releases TWIST1 into the nucleus, promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and further exacerbating breast cancer progression. Moreover, CAF-derived exosomal miR-92a induces tumor invasion and metastasis in mice. Overall, our study reveals that CAF-derived exosomal miR-92a serves as a promoter in the migration and invasion of breast cancer cells by reducing G3BP2 and may represent a potential novel tumor marker for breast cancer.

Exosomes: A New Hope for Angiogenesis-Mediated Bone Regeneration

Bone is a metabolically dynamic structure that is generally remodeled throughout the lifetime of an individual but often causes problems with increasing age. A key player for bone development and homeostasis, but also under pathological conditions, is the bone vasculature. This complex system of arteries, veins, and capillaries forms distinct structures where each subset of endothelial cells has important functions. Starting with the basic process of angiogenesis and bone-specific blood vessel formation, coupled with initial bone formation, the importance of different vascular structures is highlighted with respect to how these structures are maintained or changed during homeostasis, aging, and pathological conditions. After exemplifying the current knowledge on bone vasculature, this review will move on to exosomes, a novel hotspot of scientific research. Exosomes will be introduced starting from their discovery via current isolation procedures and state-of-the-art characterization to their role in bone vascular development, homeostasis, and bone regeneration and repair while summarizing the underlying signal transduction pathways. With respect to their role in these processes, especially mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles are of interest, which leads to a discussion on patented applications and an update on ongoing clinical trials. Taken together, this review provides an overview of bone vasculature and bone regeneration, with a major focus on how exosomes influence this intricate system, as they might be useful for therapeutic purposes in the near future.

Exosomes: A Cutting-Edge Theranostics Tool for Oral Cancer

Exosomes are a subpopulation of extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by cells. In cancer, they are key cellular messengers during cancer development and progression. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) promote cancer progression. In oral cancer, the major complication is oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Exosomes show strong participation in several OSCC-related activities such as uncontrolled cell growth, immune suppression, angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug and therapeutic resistance. It is also a potential biomarker source for oral cancer. Some therapeutic exosome sources such as stem cells, plants (it is more effective compared to others), and engineered exosomes reduce oral cancer development. This therapeutic approach is effective because of its specificity, biocompatibility, and cell-free therapy (it reduced side effects in cancer treatment). This article highlights exosome-based theranostics signatures in oral cancer, clinical trials, challenges of exosome-based oral cancer research, and future improvements. In the future, exosomes may become an effective and affordable solution for oral cancer.

Understanding exosomes: Part 2-Emerging leaders in regenerative medicine

Exosomes are the smallest subset of extracellular signaling vesicles secreted by most cells with the ability to communicate with other tissues and cell types over long distances. Their use in regenerative medicine has gained tremendous momentum recently due to their ability to be utilized as therapeutic options for a wide array of diseases/conditions. Over 5000 publications are currently being published yearly on this topic, and this number is only expected to dramatically increase as novel therapeutic strategies continue to be developed. Today exosomes have been applied in numerous contexts including neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer's disease, central nervous system, depression, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, post-traumatic stress disorders, traumatic brain injury, peripheral nerve injury), damaged organs (heart, kidney, liver, stroke, myocardial infarctions, myocardial infarctions, ovaries), degenerative processes (atherosclerosis, diabetes, hematology disorders, musculoskeletal degeneration, osteoradionecrosis, respiratory disease), infectious diseases (COVID-19, hepatitis), regenerative procedures (antiaging, bone regeneration, cartilage/joint regeneration, osteoarthritis, cutaneous wounds, dental regeneration, dermatology/skin regeneration, erectile dysfunction, hair regrowth, intervertebral disc repair, spinal cord injury, vascular regeneration), and cancer therapy (breast, colorectal, gastric cancer and osteosarcomas), immune function (allergy, autoimmune disorders, immune regulation, inflammatory diseases, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis). This scoping review is a first of its kind aimed at summarizing the extensive regenerative potential of exosomes over a broad range of diseases and disorders.

Extracellular vesicles as biomarkers for AIDS-associated non-Hodgkin lymphoma risk

Introduction

Extracellular vesicles are membrane-bound structures secreted into the extracellular milieu by cells and can carry bioactive molecules. There is emerging evidence suggesting that EVs play a role in the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of certain cancers. In this study, we investigate the association of EVs bearing PD-L1 and molecules important in B-cell activation and differentiation with AIDS-NHL risk.

Methods

EVs were isolated from archived serum collected prior to the diagnosis of AIDS-NHL in cases (N = 51) and matched HIV+ controls (N = 52) who were men enrolled in the Los Angeles site of the MACS/WIHS Combined Cohort Study (MWCCS). Serum specimens of AIDS-NHL cases were collected at a mean time of 1.25 years (range of 2 to 36 months) prior to an AIDS-NHL diagnosis. The expression of PD-L1 and other molecules on EVs (CD40, CD40L, TNF-RII, IL-6Rα, B7-H3, ICAM-1, and FasL) were quantified by Luminex multiplex assay.

Results and discussion

We observed significantly higher levels of EVs bearing PD-L1, CD40, TNF-RII and/or IL-6Rα in AIDS-NHL cases compared with controls. Using multivariate conditional logistic regression models adjusted for age and CD4+ T-cell count, we found that EVs bearing PD-L1 (OR = 1.93; 95% CI: 1.10 - 3.38), CD40 (OR = 1.97, 95% CI: 1.09 - 3.58), TNF-RII (OR = 5.06; 95% CI: 1.99 - 12.85) and/or IL-6Rα (OR = 4.67; 95% CI: 1.40 - 15.53) were significantly and positively associated with AIDS-NHL risk. In addition, EVs bearing these molecules were significantly and positively associated with non-CNS lymphoma: PD-L1 (OR = 1.94; 95% CI: 1.01 - 3.72); CD40 (OR = 2.66; 95% CI: 1.12 - 6.35); TNF-RII (OR = 9.64; 95% CI: 2.52 - 36.86); IL-6Rα (OR = 8.34; 95% CI: 1.73 - 40.15). These findings suggest that EVs bearing PD-L1, CD40, TNF-RII and/or IL-6Rα could serve as biomarkers for the early detection of NHL in PLWH.

Acute myeloid leukemia cells and MSC-derived exosomes inhibiting transformation in myelodysplastic syndrome

AIMS

To investigate the mechanism of exosomes' role in the transformation of MDS to AML.

METHODS

Exosomes in culture supernatants of MDS and AML cell lines, were extracted by ultrafiltration and identified in three ways: morphology, size, and exosome protein surface markers. Exosomes from AML cell lines were then co-cultured with MDS cell lines and their impacts on MDS cell microenvironment, proliferation, differentiation, cell cycle, and apoptosis were analyzed by CCK-8 assay and flow cytometry. Furthermore, exosomes from MSC were extracted for further authentication.

RESULTS

The transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, Western blotting, and flow cytometry methods all verify that ultrafiltration is a reliable method to extract exosomes in the culture medium. Exosomes from AML cell lines inhibit the proliferation of MDS cell lines, block cell cycle progression, and promote apoptosis and cell differentiation. It also leads to increased secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in MDS cell lines. In addition, MSC-derived exosomes were found to inhibit the proliferation of MDS cell lines, arrest cell cycle progression, promote apoptosis, and inhibit differentiation.

CONCLUSION

Ultrafiltration is a proper methodology in extracting exosomes. The exosomes of AML origin and MSC origin may play a role in MDS leukemia transformation via targeting TNF-α/ROS-Caspase3 pathway.

Sequencing and bioinformatics analysis of miRNA from rat endplate chondrogenic exosomes

Exosomes have a key role in various diseases, such as arthritis, heart disease and respiratory disease. Exosomes from various sources have also been indicated to improve intervertebral disc degeneration. However, the role of endplate chondrogenic exosomes in intervertebral disc degeneration has remained largely elusive. The aim of the present study was to compare exosomal microRNA (miRNA) expression patterns in endplate chondrocytes before and after degeneration, and their potential roles in the pathogenesis of intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD). Endplate chondrocytes were extracted from rats and cultured to obtain pre- and post-degeneration chondrocytes. Exosomes were obtained from the chondrocytes by centrifugation. The two groups of exosomes were subjected to small RNA sequencing, miRNA identification, novel miRNA prediction, quantitative analysis of miRNA expression and differentially expressed (DE) miRNA screening, in addition to miRNA target gene (TG) prediction and TG functional annotation and enrichment analysis. The percentage of miRNAs isolated from the exosomes before and after degeneration was found to differ. A total of 58 DE miRNAs were analyzed, the expression levels of which were significantly different post-degeneration compared with pre-degeneration. Cell experiments were also performed, in which the exosomes were co-cultured with nucleus pulposus (NP) cells. The results indicated that the chondrocyte-derived exosomes were taken up by the NP cells and influenced the expression of aggrecan and collagen 1A and 2A, suggesting that they may inhibit IVDD via their action on NP cells. The specific miRNAs present in exosomes during IVDD may be used to develop new targets for the treatment and diagnosis of this condition. DE exosomal miRNAs derived from endplate cartilage pre- and post-degeneration may be associated with the risk of IVDD and could help to distinguish patients with IVDD. Furthermore, the expression of certain miRNAs may be associated with disease progression, which may contribute to understanding the pathophysiology of IVDD from an epigenetic perspective.

Anti-Proliferative and Pro-Apoptotic vLMW Fucoidan Formulas Decrease PD-L1 Surface Expression in EBV Latency III and DLBCL Tumoral B-Cells by Decreasing Actin Network

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects 95% of the world's population and persists latently in the body. It immortalizes B-cells and is associated with lymphomas. LCLs (lymphoblastoid cell lines, EBV latency III B-cells) inhibit anti-tumoral T-cell response following PD-L1 overexpression (programmed death-ligand 1 immune checkpoint). Many cancer cells, including some DLBCLs (diffuse large B-cell lymphomas), also overexpress PD-L1. Immunotherapies are based on inhibition of PD-L1/PD-1 interactions but present some dose-dependent toxicities. We aim to find new strategies to improve their efficiency by decreasing PD-L1 expression. Fucoidan, a polysaccharide extracted from brown seaweed, exhibits immunomodulatory and anti-tumor activities depending on its polymerization degree, but data are scarce on lymphoma cells or immune checkpoints. LCLs and DLBCLs cells were treated with native fucoidan (Fucus vesiculosus) or original very-low-molecular-weight fucoidan formulas (vLMW-F). We observed cell proliferation decrease and apoptosis induction increase with vLMW-F and no toxicity on normal B- and T-cells. We highlighted a decrease in transcriptional and PD-L1 surface expression, even more efficient for vLMW than native fucoidan. This can be explained by actin network alteration, suggesting lower fusion of secretory vesicles carrying PD-L1 with the plasma membrane. We propose vLMW-F as potential adjuvants to immunotherapy due to their anti-proliferative and proapoptotic effects and ability to decrease PD-L1 membrane expression.

Current Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Exosomes in Oral Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

Oral cancer is one of the most common cancers in the world, with more than 300,000 cases diagnosed each year, of which oral squamous cell carcinoma accounts for more than 90%, with a 5-year survival rate of only 40–60%, and poor prognosis. Exploring new strategies for the early diagnosis and treatment of oral cancer is key to improving the survival rate. Exosomes are nanoscale lipid bilayer membrane vesicles that are secreted by almost all cell types. During the development of oral cancer, exosomes can transport their contents (DNA, RNA, proteins, etc) to target cells and promote or inhibit the proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of oral cancer cells by influencing the host immune response, drug-resistant metastasis, and tumour angiogenesis. Therefore, exosomes have great potential and advantages as biomarkers for oral cancer diagnosis, and as drug delivery vehicles or targets for oral cancer therapy. In this review, we first describe the biogenesis, biological functions, and isolation methods of exosomes, followed by their relationship with oral cancer. Here, we focused on the potential of exosomes as oral cancer biomarkers, drug carriers, and therapeutic targets. Finally, we provide an insightful discussion of the opportunities and challenges of exosome application in oral cancer diagnosis and treatment, intending to offer new ideas for the clinical management of oral cancer.

Micro-RNA and Proteomic Profiles of Plasma-Derived Exosomes from Irradiated Mice Reveal Molecular Changes Preventing Apoptosis in Neonatal Cerebellum

Cell communication via exosomes is capable of influencing cell fate in stress situations such as exposure to ionizing radiation. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that exosomes might play a role in out-of-target radiation effects by carrying molecular signaling mediators of radiation damage, as well as opposite protective functions resulting in resistance to radiotherapy. However, a global understanding of exosomes and their radiation-induced regulation, especially within the context of an intact mammalian organism, has been lacking. In this in vivo study, we demonstrate that, compared to sham-irradiated (SI) mice, a distinct pattern of proteins and miRNAs is found packaged into circulating plasma exosomes after whole-body and partial-body irradiation (WBI and PBI) with 2 Gy X-rays. A high number of deregulated proteins (59% of WBI and 67% of PBI) was found in the exosomes of irradiated mice. In total, 57 and 13 miRNAs were deregulated in WBI and PBI groups, respectively, suggesting that the miRNA cargo is influenced by the tissue volume exposed to radiation. In addition, five miRNAs (miR-99b-3p, miR-200a-3p, miR-200a, miR-182-5p, miR-182) were commonly overexpressed in the exosomes from the WBI and PBI groups. In this study, particular emphasis was also given to the determination of the in vivo effect of exosome transfer by intracranial injection in the highly radiosensitive neonatal cerebellum at postnatal day 3. In accordance with a major overall anti-apoptotic function of the commonly deregulated miRNAs, here, we report that exosomes from the plasma of irradiated mice, especially in the case of WBI, prevent radiation-induced apoptosis, thus holding promise for exosome-based future therapeutic applications against radiation injury.

MSCs and their exosomes: a rapidly evolving approach in the context of cutaneous wounds therapy

Currently, mesenchymal stem/stromal stem cell (MSC) therapy has become a promising option for accelerating cutaneous wound healing. In vivo reports have outlined the robust competences of MSCs to offer a solid milieu by inhibition of inflammatory reactions, which in turn, enables skin regeneration. Further, due to their great potential to stimulate angiogenesis and also facilitate matrix remodeling, MSCs hold substantial potential as future therapeutic strategies in this context. The MSCs-induced wound healing is thought to mainly rely on the secretion of a myriad of paracrine factors in addition to their direct differentiation to skin-resident cells. Besides, MSCs-derived exosomes as nanoscale and closed membrane vesicles have recently been suggested as an effective and cell-free approach to support skin regeneration, circumventing the concerns respecting direct application of MSCs. The MSCs-derived exosomes comprise molecular components including lipid, proteins, DNA, microRNA, and also mRNA, which target molecular pathways and also biological activities in recipient cells (e.g., endothelial cell, keratinocyte, and fibroblast). The secreted exosome modifies macrophage activation, stimulates angiogenesis, and instigates keratinocytes and dermal fibroblast proliferations as well as migrations concurrently regulate inherent potential of myofibroblast for adjustment of turnover of the ECM. In the present review, we will focus on the recent findings concerning the application of MSCs and their derivative exosome to support wound healing and skin regeneration, with special focus on last decade in vivo reports.

The roles of exosomal immune checkpoint proteins in tumors

Targeting immune checkpoints has achieved great therapeutic effects in the treatment of early-stage tumors. However, most patients develop adaptive resistance to this therapy. The latest evidence demonstrates that tumor-derived exosomes may play a key role in systemic immune suppression and tumor progression. In this article, we highlight the role of exosomal immune checkpoint proteins in tumor immunity, with an emphasis on programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4), as well as emerging evidence on roles of T cell immunoglobulin-3 (TIM-3), arginase 1 (ARG1), and estrogen receptor binding fragment-associated antigen 9 (EBAG9) expressed by exosomes.

The role and therapeutic potential of exosomes in ischemic stroke

Ischemic stroke is a disease caused by insufficient blood and oxygen supply to the brain, which is mainly due to intracranial arterial stenosis and middle cerebral artery occlusion. Exosomes play an important role in cerebral ischemia. Nucleic acid substances such as miRNA, circRNA, lncRNA in exosomes can play communication roles and improve cerebral ischemia by regulating the development and regeneration of the nervous system, remodeling of blood vessels and inhibiting neuroinflammation. Furthermore, exosomes modulate stroke through various mechanisms, including improving neural communication, promoting the development of neuronal cells and myelin synapses, neurovascular unit remodeling and maintaining homeostasis of the nervous system. At the same time, exosomes are also a good carrier of bioactive substances, which can be modified and targeted to the lesion site. Here, we review the roles of exosomes in cerebral ischemia, and discuss the possible mechanisms and potentials of modification of exosomes for targeting stroke, providing a new idea for the prevention and treatment of cerebral ischemia.

An indispensable tool: Exosomes play a role in therapy for radiation damage

Radiotherapy is one of the three main treatments for tumors. Almost 70% of tumor patients undergo radiotherapy at different periods. Although radiotherapy can enhance the local control rate of tumors and patients' quality of life, normal tissues often show radiation damage following radiotherapy. In recent years, several studies have shown that exosomes could be biomarkers for diseases and be involved in the treatment of radiation damage. Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles containing complex miRNAs and proteins. They can regulate the inflammatory response, enhance the regeneration effect of damaged tissue, and promote the repair of damaged tissues and cells, extending their survival time. In addition, their functions are achieved by paracrine signaling. In this review, we discuss the potential of exosomes as biomarkers and introduce the impact of exosomes on radiation damage in different organs and the hematopoietic system in detail.

Advances in Exosomes-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Exosomes, a subgroup of extracellular vesicles, are important mediators of long-distance intercellular communication and are involved in a diverse range of biological processes such as the transport of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Researchers, seeing the problems caused by the toxic effects and clearance of synthetic nanoparticles, consider exosomes as an interesting alternative to such nanoparticles in the specific and controlled transport of drugs. In recent years, there have been remarkable advances in the use of exosomes in cancer therapeutics or for treating neurological diseases, among other applications. The objective of this work is to analyze studies focused on exosomes used in drug delivery system, present and future applications in this field of research are discussed based on the results obtained.