Parallel fibre stimulation and the responses induced thereby in the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum

NMDARs in granule cells contribute to parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synaptic plasticity and motor learning

Long-term synaptic plasticity is believed to be the cellular substrate of learning and memory. Synaptic plasticity rules are defined by the specific complement of receptors at the synapse and the associated downstream signaling mechanisms. In young rodents, at the cerebellar synapse between granule cells (GC) and Purkinje cells (PC), bidirectional plasticity is shaped by the balance between transcellular nitric oxide (NO) driven by presynaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activation and postsynaptic calcium dynamics. However, the role and the location of NMDAR activation in these pathways is still debated in mature animals. Here, we show in adult rodents that NMDARs are present and functional in presynaptic terminals where their activation triggers NO signaling. In addition, we find that selective genetic deletion of presynaptic, but not postsynaptic, NMDARs prevents synaptic plasticity at parallel fiber-PC (PF-PC) synapses. Consistent with this finding, the selective deletion of GC NMDARs affects adaptation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex. Thus, NMDARs presynaptic to PCs are required for bidirectional synaptic plasticity and cerebellar motor learning.

Neural Circuits of Inputs and Outputs of the Cerebellar Cortex and Nuclei

This article is dedicated to the memory of Masao Ito. Masao Ito made numerous important contributions revealing the function of the cerebellum in motor control. His pioneering contributions to cerebellar physiology began with his discovery of inhibition and disinhibition of target neurons by cerebellar Purkinje cells, and his discovery of the presence of long-term depression in parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses. Purkinje cells formed the nodal point of Masao Ito's landmark model of motor control by the cerebellum. These discoveries became the basis for his ideas regarding the flocculus hypothesis, the adaptive motor control system, and motor learning by the cerebellum, inspiring many new experiments to test his hypotheses. This article will trace the achievements of Ito and colleagues in analyzing the neural circuits of the input-output organization of the cerebellar cortex and nuclei, particularly with respect to motor control. The article will discuss some of the important issues that have been solved and also those that remain to be solved for our understanding of motor control by the cerebellum.

Synergistic excitability plasticity in cerebellar functioning

The cerebellum, a universal processor for sensory acquisition and internal models, and its association with synaptic and nonsynaptic plasticity have been envisioned as the biological correlates of learning, perception, and even thought. Indeed, the cerebellum is no longer considered merely as the locus of motor coordination and its learning. Here, we introduce the mechanisms underlying the induction of multiple types of plasticity in cerebellar circuit and give an overview focusing on the plasticity of nonsynaptic intrinsic excitability. The discovery of long-term potentiation of synaptic responsiveness in hippocampal neurons led investigations into changes of their intrinsic excitability. This activity-dependent potentiation of neuronal excitability is distinct from that of synaptic efficacy. Systematic examination of excitability plasticity has indicated that the modulation of various types of Ca²⁺ - and voltage-dependent K⁺ channels underlies the phenomenon, which is also triggered by immune activity. Intrinsic plasticity is expressed specifically on dendrites and modifies the integrative processing and filtering effect. In Purkinje cells, modulation of the discordance of synaptic current on soma and dendrite suggested a novel type of cellular learning mechanism. This property enables a plausible synergy between synaptic efficacy and intrinsic excitability, by amplifying electrical conductivity and influencing the polarity of bidirectional synaptic plasticity. Furthermore, the induction of intrinsic plasticity in the cerebellum correlates with motor performance and cognitive processes, through functional connections from the cerebellar nuclei to neocortex and associated regions: for example, thalamus and midbrain. Taken together, recent advances in neuroscience have begun to shed light on the complex functioning of nonsynaptic excitability and the synergy.

Consensus Paper: Experimental Neurostimulation of the Cerebellum

The cerebellum is best known for its role in controlling motor behaviors. However, recent work supports the view that it also influences non-motor behaviors. The contribution of the cerebellum towards different brain functions is underscored by its involvement in a diverse and increasing number of neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions including ataxia, dystonia, essential tremor, Parkinson's disease (PD), epilepsy, stroke, multiple sclerosis, autism spectrum disorders, dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and schizophrenia. Although there are no cures for these conditions, cerebellar stimulation is quickly gaining attention for symptomatic alleviation, as cerebellar circuitry has arisen as a promising target for invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation. This consensus paper brings together experts from the fields of neurophysiology, neurology, and neurosurgery to discuss recent efforts in using the cerebellum as a therapeutic intervention. We report on the most advanced techniques for manipulating cerebellar circuits in humans and animal models and define key hurdles and questions for moving forward.

Effects of cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation on cerebellar-brain inhibition in humans: A systematic evaluation

BACKGROUND

Cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation (ctDCS) is increasingly used to modulate cerebellar excitability and plasticity in healthy subjects and various patient populations. ctDCS parameters are poorly standardized, and its physiology remains little understood. Our aim was to compare the physiological effects of three different non-target electrode positions (buccinator muscle, supraorbital region, deltoid muscle).

METHODS

In the first experiment, physiological after-effects of ctDCS were compared based on cerebellar-brain inhibition (CBI) in a group of 15 healthy right-handed participants. In the second experiment, CBI after-effects of ctDCS were assessed using different transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) intensities in 14 participants (CBI recruitment curve). The electric field distribution was calculated for each of the electrode montages based on a single anatomically accurate head model.

RESULTS

Anodal and cathodal ctDCS polarities significantly decreased cerebellar-brain inhibition (CBI) with no substantial differences between the montages. Lower cerebellar TMS intensities resulted in decreased CBI following cathodal and increased CBI after anodal ctDCS. Computational modeling revealed minor differences in the electric field distribution between non-target electrode positions based on the effect size.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that the non-target electrode position has no significant impact on modeling results and physiological ctDCS after-effects. The recruitment of the cerebellar-M1 connection, however, varied depending on ctDCS polarity and cerebellar transcranial magnetic stimulation intensity, possibly due to diverse effects on different cell populations in the cerebellar cortex. This may be one of the reasons why ctDCS effects on functional measures are difficult to predict.

Molecular layer interneurons shape the spike activity of cerebellar Purkinje cells

Purkinje cells receive synaptic input from several classes of interneurons. Here, we address the roles of inhibitory molecular layer interneurons in establishing Purkinje cell function in vivo. Using conditional genetics approaches in mice, we compare how the lack of stellate cell versus basket cell GABAergic neurotransmission sculpts the firing properties of Purkinje cells. We take advantage of an inducible Ascl1CreER allele to spatially and temporally target the deletion of the vesicular GABA transporter, Vgat, in developing neurons. Selective depletion of basket cell GABAergic neurotransmission increases the frequency of Purkinje cell simple spike firing and decreases the frequency of complex spike firing in adult behaving mice. In contrast, lack of stellate cell communication increases the regularity of Purkinje cell simple spike firing while increasing the frequency of complex spike firing. Our data uncover complementary roles for molecular layer interneurons in shaping the rate and pattern of Purkinje cell activity in vivo.

Voltage-gated sodium currents in cerebellar Purkinje neurons: functional and molecular diversity

Purkinje neurons, the sole output of the cerebellar cortex, deliver GABA-mediated inhibition to the deep cerebellar nuclei. To subserve this critical function, Purkinje neurons fire repetitively, and at high frequencies, features that have been linked to the unique properties of the voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels expressed. In addition to the rapidly activating and inactivating, or transient, component of the Nav current (INaT) present in many types of central and peripheral neurons, Purkinje neurons, also expresses persistent (INaP) and resurgent (INaR) Nav currents. Considerable progress has been made in detailing the biophysical properties and identifying the molecular determinants of these discrete Nav current components, as well as defining their roles in the regulation of Purkinje neuron excitability. Here, we review this important work and highlight the remaining questions about the molecular mechanisms controlling the expression and the functioning of Nav currents in Purkinje neurons. We also discuss the impact of the dynamic regulation of Nav currents on the functioning of individual Purkinje neurons and cerebellar circuits.

Typical gray matter axons in mammalian brain fail to conduct action potentials faithfully at fever-like temperatures

We studied the ability of typical unmyelinated cortical axons to conduct action potentials at fever‐like temperatures because fever often gives CNS symptoms. We investigated such axons in cerebellar and hippocampal slices from 10 to 25 days old rats at temperatures between 30 and 43°C. By recording with two electrodes along axonal pathways, we confirmed that the axons were able to initiate action potentials, but at temperatures >39°C, the propagation of the action potentials to a more distal recording site was reduced. This temperature‐sensitive conduction may be specific for the very thin unmyelinated axons because similar recordings from myelinated CNS axons did not show conduction failures. We found that the conduction fidelity improved with 1 mmol/L TEA in the bath, probably due to block of voltage‐sensitive potassium channels responsible for the fast repolarization of action potentials. Furthermore, by recording electrically activated antidromic action potentials from the soma of cerebellar granule cells, we showed that the axons failed less if they were triggered 10–30 msec after another action potential. This was because individual action potentials were followed by a depolarizing after‐potential, of constant amplitude and shape, which facilitated conduction of the following action potentials. The temperature‐sensitive conduction failures above, but not below, normal body temperature, and the failure‐reducing effect of the spike's depolarizing after‐potential, are two intrinsic mechanisms in normal gray matter axons that may help us understand how the hyperthermic brain functions.

Oscillations, Timing, Plasticity, and Learning in the Cerebellum

The highly stereotyped, crystal-like architecture of the cerebellum has long served as a basis for hypotheses with regard to the function(s) that it subserves. Historically, most clinical observations and experimental work have focused on the involvement of the cerebellum in motor control, with particular emphasis on coordination and learning. Two main models have been suggested to account for cerebellar functioning. According to Llinás's theory, the cerebellum acts as a control machine that uses the rhythmic activity of the inferior olive to synchronize Purkinje cell populations for fine-tuning of coordination. In contrast, the Ito-Marr-Albus theory views the cerebellum as a motor learning machine that heuristically refines synaptic weights of the Purkinje cell based on error signals coming from the inferior olive. Here, we review the role of timing of neuronal events, oscillatory behavior, and synaptic and non-synaptic influences in functional plasticity that can be recorded in awake animals in various physiological and pathological models in a perspective that also includes non-motor aspects of cerebellar function. We discuss organizational levels from genes through intracellular signaling, synaptic network to system and behavior, as well as processes from signal production and processing to memory, delegation, and actual learning. We suggest an integrative concept for control and learning based on articulated oscillation templates.

High-fidelity optical excitation of cortico-cortical projections at physiological frequencies

Optogenetic activation of axons is a powerful approach for determining the synaptic properties and impact of long-range projections both in vivo and in vitro. However, because of the difficulty of measuring activity in axons, our knowledge of the reliability of optogenetic axonal stimulation has relied on data from somatic recordings. Yet, there are many reasons why activation of axons may not be comparable to cell bodies. Thus we have developed an approach to more directly assess the fidelity of optogenetic activation of axonal projections. We expressed opsins (ChR2, Chronos, or oChIEF) in the mouse primary visual cortex (V1) and recorded extracellular, pharmacologically isolated presynaptic action potentials in response to axonal activation in the higher visual areas. Repetitive stimulation of axons with ChR2 resulted in a 70% reduction in the fiber volley amplitude and a 60% increase in the latency at all frequencies tested (10-40 Hz). Thus ChR2 cannot reliably recruit axons during repetitive stimulation, even at frequencies that are reliable for somatic stimulation, likely due to pronounced channel inactivation at the high light powers required to evoke action potentials. By comparison, oChIEF and Chronos evoked photocurrents that inactivated minimally and could produce reliable axon stimulation at frequencies up to 60 Hz. Our approach provides a more direct and accurate evaluation of the efficacy of new optogenetic tools and has identified Chronos and oChIEF as viable tools to interrogate the synaptic and circuit function of long-range projections.

Ethanol-Induced Cerebellar Ataxia: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms

The cerebellum is an important target of ethanol toxicity given that cerebellar ataxia is the most consistent physical manifestation of acute ethanol consumption. Despite the significance of the cerebellum in ethanol-induced cerebellar ataxia (EICA), the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying EICA are incompletely understood. However, two important findings have shed greater light on this phenomenon. First, ethanol-induced blockade of cerebellar adenosine uptake in rodent models points to a role for adenosinergic A1 modulation of EICA. Second, the consistent observation that intracerebellar administration of nicotine in mice leads to antagonism of EICA provides evidence for a critical role of cerebellar nitric oxide (NO) in EICA reversal. Based on these two important findings, this review discusses the potential molecular events at two key synaptic sites (mossy fiber-granule cell-Golgi cell (MGG synaptic site) and granule cell parallel fiber-Purkinje cell (GPP synaptic site) that lead to EICA. Specifically, ethanol-induced neuronal NOS inhibition at the MGG synaptic site acts as a critical trigger for Golgi cell activation which leads to granule cell deafferentation. Concurrently, ethanol-induced inhibition of adenosine uptake at the GPP synaptic site produces adenosine accumulation which decreases glutamate release and leads to the profound activation of Purkinje cells (PCs). These molecular events at the MGG and GPP synaptic sites are mutually reinforcing and lead to cerebellar dysfunction, decreased excitatory output of deep cerebellar nuclei, and EICA. The critical importance of PCs as the sole output of the cerebellar cortex suggests normalization of PC function could have important therapeutic implications.

The 40-year history of modeling active dendrites in cerebellar Purkinje cells: emergence of the first single cell "community model"

The subject of the effects of the active properties of the Purkinje cell dendrite on neuronal function has been an active subject of study for more than 40 years. Somewhat unusually, some of these investigations, from the outset have involved an interacting combination of experimental and model-based techniques. This article recounts that 40-year history, and the view of the functional significance of the active properties of the Purkinje cell dendrite that has emerged. It specifically considers the emergence from these efforts of what is arguably the first single cell "community" model in neuroscience. The article also considers the implications of the development of this model for future studies of the complex properties of neuronal dendrites.

Molecular layer interneurons of the cerebellum: developmental and morphological aspects

During the past 25 years, our knowledge on the development of basket and stellate cells (molecular layer interneurons [MLIs]) has completely changed, not only regarding their origin from the ventricular zone, corresponding to the primitive cerebellar neuroepithelium, instead of the external granular layer, but above all by providing an almost complete account of the genetic regulations (transcription factors and other genes) involved in their differentiation and synaptogenesis. Moreover, it has been shown that MLIs' precursors (dividing neuroblasts) and not young postmitotic neurons, as in other germinal neuroepithelia, leave the germinative zone and migrate all along a complex and lengthy path throughout the presumptive cerebellar white matter, which provides suitable niches exerting epigenetic influences on their ultimate neuronal identities. Recent studies carried out on the anatomical-functional properties of adult MLIs emphasize the importance of these interneurons in regulating PC inhibition, and point out the crucial role played by electrical synaptic transmission between MLIs as well as ephaptic interactions between them and Purkinje cells at the pinceaux level, in the regulation of this inhibition.

Single session imaging of cerebellum at 7 Tesla: obtaining structure and function of multiple motor subsystems in individual subjects

The recent increase in the use of high field MR systems is accompanied by a demand for acquisition techniques and coil systems that can take advantage of increased power and accuracy without being susceptible to increased noise. Physical location and anatomical complexity of targeted regions must be considered when attempting to image deeper structures with small nuclei and/or complex cytoarchitechtonics (i.e. small microvasculature and deep nuclei), such as the brainstem and the cerebellum (Cb). Once these obstacles are overcome, the concomitant increase in signal strength at higher field strength should allow for faster acquisition of MR images. Here we show that it is technically feasible to quickly and accurately detect blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal changes and obtain anatomical images of Cb at high spatial resolutions in individual subjects at 7 Tesla in a single one-hour session. Images were obtained using two high-density multi-element surface coils (32 channels in total) placed beneath the head at the level of Cb, two channel transmission, and three-dimensional sensitivity encoded (3D, SENSE) acquisitions to investigate sensorimotor activations in Cb. Two classic sensorimotor tasks were used to detect Cb activations. BOLD signal changes during motor activity resulted in concentrated clusters of activity within the Cb lobules associated with each task, observed consistently and independently in each subject: Oculomotor vermis (VI/VII) and CrusI/II for pro- and anti-saccades; ipsilateral hemispheres IV-VI for finger tapping; and topographical separation of eye- and hand- activations in hemispheres VI and VIIb/VIII. Though fast temporal resolution was not attempted here, these functional patches of highly specific BOLD signal changes may reflect small-scale shunting of blood in the microvasculature of Cb. The observed improvements in acquisition time and signal detection are ideal for individualized investigations such as differentiation of functional zones prior to surgery.

A deconvolution-based approach to identifying large-scale effective connectivity

Rapid, robust computation of effective connectivity between neural regions is an important next step in characterizing the brain's organization, particularly in the resting state. However, recent work has called into question the value of causal inference computed directly from BOLD, demonstrating that valid inferences require transformation of the BOLD signal into its underlying neural events as necessary for accurate causal inference. In this work we develop an approach for effective connectivity estimation directly from deconvolution-based features and estimates of inter-regional communication lag. We then test, in both simulation as well as whole-brain fMRI BOLD signal, the viability of this approach. Our results show that deconvolution precision and network size play outsized roles in effective connectivity estimation performance. Idealized simulation conditions allow for statistically significant effective connectivity estimation of networks of up to four hundred regions-of-interest (ROIs). Under simulation of realistic recording conditions and deconvolution performance, however, our result indicates that effective connectivity is viable in networks containing up to approximately sixty ROIs. We then validated the ability for the proposed method to reliably detect effective connectivity in whole-brain fMRI signal parcellated into networks of viable size.

An excitatory GABA loop operating in vivo

While it has been proposed that the conventional inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA can be excitatory in the mammalian brain, much remains to be learned concerning the circumstances and the cellular mechanisms governing potential excitatory GABA action. Using a combination of optogenetics and two-photon calcium imaging in vivo, we find that activation of chloride-permeable GABA_A receptors in parallel fibers (PFs) of the cerebellar molecular layer of adult mice causes parallel fiber excitation. Stimulation of PFs at submaximal stimulus intensities leads to GABA release from molecular layer interneurons (MLIs), thus creating a positive feedback loop that enhances excitation near the center of an activated PF bundle. Our results imply that elevated chloride concentration can occur in specific intracellular compartments of mature mammalian neurons and suggest an excitatory role for GABA_A receptors in the cerebellar cortex of adult mice.

Redefining the cerebellar cortex as an assembly of non-uniform Purkinje cell microcircuits

The adult mammalian cerebellar cortex is generally assumed to have a uniform cytoarchitecture. Differences in cerebellar function are thought to arise primarily through distinct patterns of input and output connectivity rather than as a result of variations in cortical microcircuitry. However, evidence from anatomical, physiological and genetic studies is increasingly challenging this orthodoxy, and there are now various lines of evidence indicating that the cerebellar cortex is not uniform. Here, we develop the hypothesis that regional differences in properties of cerebellar cortical microcircuits lead to important differences in information processing.

In vivo properties of cerebellar interneurons in the macaque caudal vestibular vermis

KEY POINTS

We quantify both spontaneous and stimulus-driven responses of interneurons in lobules X (nodulus) and IXc,d (ventral uvula) of the caudal vermis during vestibular stimulation. Based on baseline firing, at least three types of neuronal populations could be distinguished. First, there was a group of very regular firing neurons with high mean discharge rates. Second, there was a group of low firing neurons with a range of discharge regularity. Third, we also encountered putative interneurons with discharge regularity and mean firing rates that were indistinguishable from those of physiologically identified Purkinje cells. The vestibular responses of putative interneurons were generally similar to those of Purkinje cells, thus encoding tilt, translation or mixtures of these signals. Mossy fibres showed unprocessed, otolith afferent-like properties. The cerebellar cortex is among the brain's most well-studied circuits and includes distinct classes of excitatory and inhibitory interneurons. Several studies have attempted to characterize the in vivo properties of cerebellar interneurons, yet little is currently known about their stimulus-driven properties. Here we quantify both spontaneous and stimulus-driven responses of interneurons in lobules X (nodulus) and IXc,d (ventral uvula) of the macaque caudal vermis during vestibular stimulation. Interneurons were identified as cells located >100 μm from the Purkinje cell layer that did not exhibit complex spikes. Based on baseline firing, three types of interneurons could be distinguished. First, there was a group of very regular firing interneurons with high mean discharge rates, which consistently encoded tilt, rather than translational head movements. Second, there was a group of low firing interneurons with a range of discharge regularity. This group had more diverse vestibular properties, where most were translation-selective and a few tilt- or gravitoinertial acceleration-selective. Third, we also encountered interneurons that were similar to Purkinje cells in terms of discharge regularity and mean firing rate. This group also encoded mixtures of tilt and translation signals. A few mossy fibres showed unprocessed, otolith afferent-like properties, encoding the gravitoinertial acceleration. We conclude that tilt- and translation-selective signals, which reflect neural computations transforming vestibular afferent information, are not only encountered in Purkinje cell responses. Instead, upstream interneurons within the cerebellar cortex are also characterized by similar properties, thus implying a widespread network computation.

Systematic regional variations in Purkinje cell spiking patterns

In contrast to the uniform anatomy of the cerebellar cortex, molecular and physiological studies indicate that significant differences exist between cortical regions, suggesting that the spiking activity of Purkinje cells (PCs) in different regions could also show distinct characteristics. To investigate this possibility we obtained extracellular recordings from PCs in different zebrin bands in crus IIa and vermis lobules VIII and IX in anesthetized rats in order to compare PC firing characteristics between zebrin positive (Z+) and negative (Z-) bands. In addition, we analyzed recordings from PCs in the A2 and C1 zones of several lobules in the posterior lobe, which largely contain Z+ and Z- PCs, respectively. In both datasets significant differences in simple spike (SS) activity were observed between cortical regions. Specifically, Z- and C1 PCs had higher SS firing rates than Z+ and A2 PCs, respectively. The irregularity of SS firing (as assessed by measures of interspike interval distribution) was greater in Z+ bands in both absolute and relative terms. The results regarding systematic variations in complex spike (CS) activity were less consistent, suggesting that while real differences can exist, they may be sensitive to other factors than the cortical location of the PC. However, differences in the interactions between SSs and CSs, including the post-CS pause in SSs and post-pause modulation of SSs, were also consistently observed between bands. Similar, though less strong trends were observed in the zonal recordings. These systematic variations in spontaneous firing characteristics of PCs between zebrin bands in vivo, raises the possibility that fundamental differences in information encoding exist between cerebellar cortical regions.

Vitamin E is essential for Purkinje neuron integrity

α-Tocopherol (vitamin E) is an essential dietary antioxidant with important neuroprotective functions. α-Tocopherol deficiency manifests primarily in neurological pathologies, notably cerebellar dysfunctions such as spinocerebellar ataxia. To study the roles of α-tocopherol in the cerebellum, we used the α-tocopherol transfer protein for the murine version (Ttpa(-/)(-)) mice which lack the α-tocopherol transfer protein (TTP) and are a faithful model of vitamin E deficiency and oxidative stress. When fed vitamin E-deficient diet, Ttpa(-/)(-) mice had un-detectable levels of α-tocopherol in plasma and several brain regions. Dietary supplementation with α-tocopherol normalized plasma levels of the vitamin, but only modestly increased its levels in the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex, indicating a critical function of brain TTP. Vitamin E deficiency caused an increase in cerebellar oxidative stress evidenced by increased protein nitrosylation, which was prevented by dietary supplementation with the vitamin. Concomitantly, vitamin E deficiency precipitated cellular atrophy and diminished dendritic branching of Purkinje neurons, the predominant output regulator of the cerebellar cortex. The anatomic decline induced by vitamin E deficiency was paralleled by behavioral deficits in motor coordination and cognitive functions that were normalized upon vitamin E supplementation. These observations underscore the essential role of vitamin E and TTP in maintaining CNS function, and support the notion that α-tocopherol supplementation may comprise an effective intervention in oxidative stress-related neurological disorders.

Diversity of vestibular nuclei neurons targeted by cerebellar nodulus inhibition

A functional role of the cerebellar nodulus and ventral uvula (lobules X and IXc,d of the vermis) for vestibular processing has been strongly suggested by direct reciprocal connections with the vestibular nuclei, as well as direct vestibular afferent inputs as mossy fibres. Here we have explored the types of neurons in the macaque vestibular nuclei targeted by nodulus/ventral uvula inhibition using orthodromic identification from the caudal vermis. We found that all nodulus-target neurons are tuned to vestibular stimuli, and most are insensitive to eye movements. Such non-eye-movement neurons are thought to project to vestibulo-spinal and/or thalamo-cortical pathways. Less than 20% of nodulus-target neurons were sensitive to eye movements, suggesting that the caudal vermis can also directly influence vestibulo-ocular pathways. In general, response properties of nodulus-target neurons were diverse, spanning the whole continuum previously described in the vestibular nuclei. Most nodulus-target cells responded to both rotation and translation stimuli and only a few were selectively tuned to translation motion only. Other neurons were sensitive to net linear acceleration, similar to otolith afferents. These results demonstrate that, unlike the flocculus and ventral paraflocculus which target a particular cell group, nodulus/ventral uvula inhibition targets a large diversity of cell types in the vestibular nuclei, consistent with a broad functional significance contributing to vestibulo-ocular, vestibulo-thalamic and vestibulo-spinal pathways.

Calcium influx measured at single presynaptic boutons of cerebellar granule cell ascending axons and parallel fibers

Action potential-evoked calcium influx into presynaptic boutons is a key determinant of synaptic strength and function. Here, we have examined the calcium dynamics at individual presynaptic boutons of the cerebellar granule cells in the molecular layer of cerebellar slices and investigated whether different subpopulations of granule cell boutons exhibit different calcium dynamics. We found that a population of boutons with low basal calcium clearance rates may activate a second clearance mechanism and exhibit biphasic calcium decay on high calcium influx induced by bursts of action potentials. We also found that boutons on ascending axons and parallel fibers show similar calcium influx amplitudes and calcium clearance rates in response to action potentials. Lastly, we found that parallel fiber boutons located in the inner molecular layer have a higher calcium clearance rate than boutons located in the outer molecular layer. These results suggest that cerebellar granule cell boutons should not be regarded as a homogeneous population, but rather that different subpopulations of boutons may exhibit different properties. The heterogeneity of presynaptic boutons may allow different learned behaviors to be encoded in the same circuit without mutual interference and may be a general mechanism for increasing the computational capacity of the brain.

Sensory stimulation-dependent plasticity in the cerebellar cortex of alert mice

In vitro studies have supported the occurrence of cerebellar long-term depression (LTD), an interaction between the parallel fibers and Purkinje cells (PCs) that requires the combined activation of the parallel and climbing fibers. To demonstrate the existence of LTD in alert animals, we investigated the plasticity of local field potentials (LFPs) evoked by electrical stimulation of the whisker pad. The recorded LFP showed two major negative waves corresponding to trigeminal (broken into the N2 and N3 components) and cortical responses. PC unitary extracellular recording showed that N2 and N3 occurred concurrently with PC evoked simple spikes, followed by an evoked complex spike. Polarity inversion of the N3 component at the PC level and N3 amplitude reduction after electrical stimulation of the parallel fiber volley applied on the surface of the cerebellum 2 ms earlier strongly suggest that N3 was related to the parallel fiber–PC synapse activity. LFP measurements elicited by single whisker pad stimulus were performed before and after trains of electrical stimuli given at a frequency of 8 Hz for 10 min. We demonstrated that during this later situation, the stimulation of the PC by parallel and climbing fibers was reinforced. After 8-Hz stimulation, we observed long-term modifications (lasting at least 30 min) characterized by a specific decrease of the N3 amplitude accompanied by an increase of the N2 and N3 latency peaks. These plastic modifications indicated the existence of cerebellar LTD in alert animals involving both timing and synaptic modulations. These results corroborate the idea that LTD may underlie basic physiological functions related to calcium-dependent synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum.

Abnormalities in the climbing fiber-Purkinje cell circuitry contribute to neuronal dysfunction in ATXN1[82Q] mice

One fundamental unanswered question in the field of polyglutamine diseases concerns the pathophysiology of neuronal dysfunction. Is there dysfunction in a specific neuronal population or circuit initially that contributes the onset of behavioral abnormalities? This study used a systems-level approach to investigate the functional integrity of the excitatory cerebellar cortical circuitry in vivo from several transgenic ATXN1 mouse lines. We tested the hypotheses that there are functional climbing fiber (CF)-Purkinje cell (PC) and parallel fiber (PF)-PC circuit abnormalities using flavoprotein autofluorescence optical imaging and extracellular field potential recordings. In early-symptomatic and symptomatic animals expressing ATXN1[82Q], there is a marked reduction in PC responsiveness to CF activation. Immunostaining of vesicular glutamate transporter type 2 demonstrated a decrement in CF extension on PC dendrites in symptomatic ATXN1[82Q] mice. In contrast, responses to PF stimulation were relatively normal. Importantly, the deficits in CF-PC synaptic transmission required expression of pathogenic ataxin-1 (ATXN1[82Q]) and for its entrance into the nucleus of PCs. Loss of endogenous mouse Atxn1 had no discernible effects. Furthermore, the abnormalities in CF-PC synaptic transmission were ameliorated when mutant transgene expression was prevented during postnatal cerebellar development. The results demonstrate the preferential susceptibility of the CF-PC circuit to the effects of ATXN1[82Q]. Further, this deficit likely contributes to the abnormal motor phenotype of ATXN1[82Q] mice. For polyglutamine diseases generally, the findings support a model whereby specific neuronal circuits suffer insults that alter function before cell death.

A novel path for rapid transverse communication of vestibular signals in turtle cerebellum

Voltage-sensitive dye activity within the thin, unfoliated turtle cerebellar cortex (Cb) was recorded in vitro during eighth cranial nerve (nVIII) stimulation. Short latency responses were localized to the middle of the lateral edges of both ipsilateral and contralateral Cb [vestibulocerebellum (vCb)]. Even with a severed contralateral Cb peduncle, stimulation of the nVIII ipsilateral to the intact peduncle evoked contralateral vCb responses with a mean latency of only 0.25 ms after the ipsilateral responses, even though the distance between them was ∼ 5 mm. We investigated whether a rapidly conducting commissure exists between each vCb by stimulating one of them directly. Responses in both vCb spread sagittally, but, surprisingly, there was no sequential activation along a transverse Cb beam between them. In contrast, stimulation medial to either vCb evoked transverse beams that required ∼ 20 ms to cross the Cb. Therefore, the rapid commissural connection between each vCb is not mediated by slowly conducting parallel fibers. Also, the vCb was not strongly activated by climbing fiber stimulation, suggesting that inputs to vCb involve distinct cerebellar circuits. Responses between the two vCb remained following knife cuts through the rostral and caudal Cb along the midline, through both peduncles, and even shallow midline cuts to the middle Cb through its white matter and granule cell layer. Commissural responses were still observed only with a narrow transverse bridge between each vCb or in thick transverse Cb slices. Horseradish peroxidase transport from one vCb labeled transverse axons traveling within the Purkinje cell layer that were larger than parallel fibers and lacked varicosities. In sagittal sections, cross-section profiles of myelinated axons were observed around Purkinje cells midway between the rostral and caudal Cb. This novel pathway for transverse communication between lateral edges of turtle Cb suggests that afferents may directly conduct vestibular information rapidly across the Cb to coordinate vestibulomotor reflex behaviors.

Origin and timing of voltage-sensitive dye signals within layers of the turtle cerebellar cortex

Optical recording techniques were applied to the turtle cerebellum to localize synchronous responses to microstimulation of its cortical layers and reveal the cerebellum's three-dimensional processing. The in vitro yet intact cerebellum was first immersed in voltage-sensitive dye and its responses while intact were compared to those measured in thick cerebellar slices. Each slice is stained throughout its depth, even though the pial half appeared darker during epi-illumination and lighter during trans-illumination. Optical responses were shown to be mediated by the voltage-sensitive dye because the evoked signals had opposite polarity for 540- and 710-nm light, but no response to 850-nm light. Molecular layer stimulation of the intact cerebellum evoked slow transverse beams. Similar beams were observed in the molecular layer of thick transverse slices but not sagittal slices. With low currents, beams in transverse slices were restricted to sublayers within the molecular layer, conducting slowly away from the stimulus site. These excitatory beams were observed nearly all the way across the turtle cerebellum, distances of 4-6mm. Microstimulation of the granule cell layer of both transverse or sagittal slices evoked a local membrane depolarization restricted to a radial wedge, but these radial responses did not activate measurable molecular layer beams in transverse slices. White matter microstimulation in sagittal slices (near the ventricular surface of the turtle cerebellum) activated the granule cell and Purkinje cell layers, but not the molecular layer. These responses were nearly synchronous, were primarily caudal to the stimulation, and were blocked by cobalt ions. Therefore, synaptic responses in all cerebellar layers contribute to optical signals recorded in intact cerebellum in vitro (Brown and Ariel, 2009). Rapid radial signaling connects a sagittally-oriented, fast-conduction system of the deep layers with the transverse-oriented, slow-conducting molecular layer, thereby permitting complex temporal processing between two tangential but orthogonal paths in the cerebellar cortex.

Model-founded explorations of the roles of molecular layer inhibition in regulating purkinje cell responses in cerebellar cortex: more trouble for the beam hypothesis

For most of the last 50 years, the functional interpretation for inhibition in cerebellar cortical circuitry has been dominated by the relatively simple notion that excitatory and inhibitory dendritic inputs sum, and if that sum crosses threshold at the soma the Purkinje cell generates an action potential. Thus, inhibition has traditionally been relegated to a role of sculpting, restricting, or blocking excitation. At the level of networks, this relatively simply notion is manifest in mechanisms like "surround inhibition" which is purported to "shape" or "tune" excitatory neuronal responses. In the cerebellum, where all cell types except one (the granule cell) are inhibitory, these assumptions regarding the role of inhibition continue to dominate. Based on our recent series of modeling and experimental studies, we now suspect that inhibition may play a much more complex, subtle, and central role in the physiological and functional organization of cerebellar cortex. This paper outlines how model-based studies are changing our thinking about the role of feed-forward molecular layer inhibition in the cerebellar cortex. The results not only have important implications for continuing efforts to understand what the cerebellum computes, but might also reveal important features of the evolution of this large and quintessentially vertebrate brain structure.

Electrophysiological characterization of the cerebellum in the arterially perfused hindbrain and upper body of the rat

In the present study, a non-pulsatile arterially perfused hindbrain and upper body rat preparation is described which is an extension of the brainstem preparation reported by Potts et al., (Brain Res Bull 53(1):59-67), 1. The modified in situ preparation allows study of cerebellar function whilst preserving the integrity of many of its interconnections with the brainstem, upper spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system of the head and forelimbs. Evoked mossy fibre, climbing fibre and parallel fibre field potentials and EMG activity elicited in forelimb biceps muscle by interpositus stimulation provided evidence that both cerebellar inputs and outputs remain operational in this preparation. Similarly, the spontaneous and evoked single unit activity of Purkinje cells, putative Golgi cells, molecular interneurones and cerebellar nuclear neurones was similar to activity patterns reported in vivo. The advantages of the preparation include the ability to record, without the complications of anaesthesia, stabile single unit activity for extended periods (3 h or more), from regions of the rat cerebellum that are difficult to access in vivo. The preparation should therefore be a useful adjunct to in vitro and in vivo studies of neural circuits underlying cerebellar contributions to movement control and motor learning.

Target-dependent feedforward inhibition mediated by short-term synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum

Cerebellar feedforward inhibition (FFI) is mediated by two distinct pathways targeting different subcellular compartments of Purkinje cells (PCs). The axon of the granule cell, the parallel fiber, makes excitatory synapses not only onto PCs but also onto two types of interneurons, basket and stellate cells. Basket and stellate cells then send inhibitory signals to the soma and dendrites of Purkinje cells, respectively. Functional differences between somatic and dendritic FFI pathways, however, remain unknown. Here we address this question by examining how basket and stellate cells are recruited dynamically under high-frequency granule cell inputs at mice cerebellum. Short-term plasticity of various synapses within the FFI circuit has been explored. Unexpectedly, the parallel fiber synapse, which was considered to be facilitating during repetitive stimulation, shows depression, when the postsynaptic target is a basket cell. Other factors in the FFI circuit, such as firing properties of interneurons and dynamics of inhibitory synapses, are similar between somatic and dendritic pathways. The target-dependent parallel fiber synaptic plasticity has functional consequences for the two FFI pathways, because we observe that PCs receive transient somatic inhibition during 50 Hz stimulation of granule cells but persistent dendritic inhibition.

Differential olivo-cerebellar cortical control of rebound activity in the cerebellar nuclei

The output of the cerebellar cortex is controlled by two main inputs, (i.e., the climbing fiber and mossy fiber-parallel fiber pathway) and activations of these inputs elicit characteristic effects in its Purkinje cells: that is, the so-called complex spikes and simple spikes. Target neurons of the Purkinje cells in the cerebellar nuclei show rebound firing, which has been implicated in the processing and storage of motor coordination signals. Yet, it is not known to what extent these rebound phenomena depend on different modes of Purkinje cell activation. Using extracellular as well as patch-clamp recordings, we show here in both anesthetized and awake rodents that simple and complex spike-like train stimuli to the cerebellar cortex, as well as direct activation of the inferior olive, all result in rebound increases of the firing frequencies of cerebellar nuclei neurons for up to 250 ms, whereas single-pulse stimuli to the cerebellar cortex predominantly elicit well-timed spiking activity without changing the firing frequency of cerebellar nuclei neurons. We conclude that the rebound phenomenon offers a rich and powerful mechanism for cerebellar nuclei neurons, which should allow them to differentially process the climbing fiber and mossy fiber inputs in a physiologically operating cerebellum.

Neocortical networks entrain neuronal circuits in cerebellar cortex

Activity in neocortex is often characterized by synchronized oscillations of neurons and networks, resulting in the generation of a local field potential (LFP) and electroencephalogram. Do the neuronal networks of the cerebellum also generate synchronized oscillations and are they under the influence of those in the neocortex? Here we show that, in the absence of any overt external stimulus, the cerebellar cortex generates a slow oscillation that is correlated with that of the neocortex. Disruption of the neocortical slow oscillation abolishes the cerebellar slow oscillation, whereas blocking cerebellar activity has no overt effect on the neocortex. We provide evidence that the cerebellar slow oscillation results in part from the activation of granule, Golgi, and Purkinje neurons. In particular, we show that granule and Golgi cells discharge trains of single spikes, and Purkinje cells generate complex spikes, during the "up" state of the slow oscillation. Purkinje cell simple spiking is weakly related to the cerebellar and neocortical slow oscillation in a minority of cells. Our results indicate that the cerebellum generates rhythmic network activity that can be recorded as an LFP in the anesthetized animal, which is driven by synchronized oscillations of the neocortex. Furthermore, we show that correlations between neocortical and cerebellar LFPs persist in the awake animal, indicating that neocortical circuits modulate cerebellar neurons in a similar manner in natural behavioral states. Thus, the projection neurons of the neocortex collectively exert a driving and modulatory influence on cerebellar network activity.

Dynamic correspondence between Purkinje cell discharge and forelimb muscle activity during reaching

There remain conflicting models of the cerebellar control of limb movement, ranging from the suggestion that the inhibitory output from Purkinje cells (PCs) is meant to suppress unwanted muscle activity, to the hypothesis that the cerebellar cortex embodies complex internal models of limb dynamics. To test these ideas, we undertook a quantitative comparison of PC simple spike dynamics to those of muscle activity. We recorded simultaneously from Purkinje cells in the paravermal anterior lobe and from muscles of the hand and arm in the behaving monkey during a simple, sequential button pressing task. The task-related discharge of each neuron was determined from peri-event histograms aligned to the onset of the behavior. Bursts of discharge were more than twice as common as pauses, but there was no difference in their timing relative to movement. From the same recordings, the similarity between discharge and muscle activity was evaluated by calculating the cross correlation between firing rate and rectified EMG. Surprisingly, given the inhibitory projection of PCs, most of the bursts of PC discharge were positively correlated with muscle activity. Although our results do not support a simple correspondence of pauses and bursts with limb acceleration and deceleration respectively, they are consistent with a more complex PC regulation of cerebellar nuclear activity from task-related, corticopontine drive.

Noradrenergic control of associative synaptic plasticity by selective modulation of instructive signals

Synapses throughout the brain are modified through associative mechanisms in which one input provides an instructive signal for changes in the strength of a second coactivated input. In cerebellar Purkinje cells, climbing fiber synapses provide an instructive signal for plasticity at parallel fiber synapses. Here, we show that noradrenaline activates alpha2-adrenergic receptors to control short-term and long-term associative plasticity of parallel fiber synapses. This regulation of plasticity does not reflect a conventional direct modulation of the postsynaptic Purkinje cell or presynaptic parallel fibers. Instead, noradrenaline reduces associative plasticity by selectively decreasing the probability of release at the climbing fiber synapse, which in turn decreases climbing fiber-evoked dendritic calcium signals. These findings raise the possibility that targeted presynaptic modulation of instructive synapses could provide a general mechanism for dynamic context-dependent modulation of associative plasticity.

Differential modulation of cerebellar climbing fiber and parallel fiber synaptic responses at high pressure

High pressure, which induces central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction (high-pressure neurological syndrome) depresses synaptic transmission at all synapses examined to date. Several lines of evidence indicate an inhibitory effect of pressure on Ca2+ entry into the presynaptic terminal. In the present work we studied for the first time the effect of pressure on the cerebellar climbing fiber (CF) synaptic responses. Pressure modulation of cerebellar synaptic plasticity was tested in both the CF and parallel fiber (PF) pathways using paired-pulse protocols. CF synapses, which normally operate at a high baseline release probability, demonstrate paired-pulse depression (PPD). High pressure reduced CF synaptic responses at 5.1 and 10.1 MPa but did not affect its PPD. High extracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]o) could not antagonize the effect of pressure on the CF response, whereas low [Ca2+]o, in contrast to pressure, decreased both the response amplitude and the observed PPD. PF synapses, which usually operate at low release probability, exhibit paired-pulse facilitation (PPF). Pressure increased PF PPF at all interstimulus intervals (ISIs) tested (20–200 ms). Several Ca2+ channel blockers as well as low [Ca2+]o could mimic the effect of pressure on the PF response but significantly increased the PPF only at the 20-ms ISI. These results, together with previous data, show that the CF synapse is relatively resistant to pressure. The lack of pressure effect on CF PPD is surprising and may suggest that the PPD is not directly linked to synaptic depletion, as generally suggested. The increase in PPF of the PF at pressure, which is mimicked by Ca2+ channel blockers or low [Ca2+]o, further supports pressure involvement in synaptic release mechanism(s). These results also indicate that pressure effects may be selective for various types of synapses in the CNS.

The Morpho/Functional Discrepancy in the Cerebellar Cortex: Looks Alone are Deceptive

In a recent report we demonstrated that stimulation of cerebellar mossy fibers synchronously activates Purkinje cells that are located directly above the site of stimulation. We found that the activated Purkinje cells are arranged in a radial patch on the cerebellar surface and that this organization is independent of the integrity of the inhibitory system. This arrangement of activity is counterintuitive. The anatomical structure with the extensive parallel fiber system implies that mossy fiber stimulation will activate Purkinje cells along a beam of parallel fibers. In this short review we highlight this discrepancy between anatomical structure and functional dynamics and suggest a plausible underlying mechanism.

The H-current secures action potential transmission at high frequencies in rat cerebellar parallel fibers

Most axons in the mammalian brain are unmyelinated and thin with pre-synaptic specializations (boutons) along their entire paths. The parallel fibers in the cerebellum are examples of such axons. Unlike most thin axons they have only one branch point. The granule cell soma, where they originate, can fire bursts of action potentials with spike intervals of about 2 ms. An important question is whether the axons are able to propagate spikes with similarly short intervals. By using extracellular single-unit and population-recording methods we showed that parallel fibers faithfully conduct spikes at high frequencies over long distances. However, when adding 20 microm ZD7288 or 1 mm Cs(+), or reducing the temperature from 35 to 24 degrees C, the action potentials often failed even when successfully initiated. Ba(2+)(1 mm), which blocks Kir channels, did not reproduce these effects. The conduction velocity was reduced by ZD7288 but not by Ba(2+). This suggests that the parallel fibers have an H-current that is active at rest and that is important for their frequency-following properties. Interestingly, failures occurred only when the action potential had to traverse the axonal branch point, suggesting that the branch point is the weakest point in these axons.

Topography and response timing of intact cerebellum stained with absorbance voltage-sensitive dye

Physiological activity of the turtle cerebellar cortex (Cb), maintained in vitro, was recorded during microstimulation of inferior olive (IO). Previous single-electrode responses to such stimulation showed similar latencies across a limited region of Cb, yet those recordings lacked spatial and temporal resolution and the recording depth was variable. The topography and timing of those responses were reexamined using photodiode optical recordings. Because turtle Cb is thin and unfoliated, its entire surface can be stained by a voltage-sensitive dye and transilluminated to measure changes in its local absorbance. Microstimulation of the IO evoked widespread depolarization from the rostral to the caudal edge of the contralateral Cb. The time course of responses measured at a single photodiode matched that of single-microelectrode responses in the corresponding Cb locus. The largest and most readily evoked response was a sagittal band centered about 0.7 mm from the midline. Focal white-matter (WM) microstimulation on the ventricular surface also activated sagittal bands, whereas stimulation of adjacent granule cells evoked a radial patch of activation. In contrast, molecular-layer (ML) microstimulation evoked transverse beams of activation, centered on the rostrocaudal stimulus position, which traveled bidirectionally across the midline to the lateral edges of the Cb. A timing analysis demonstrated that both IO and WM microstimulation evoked responses with a nearly simultaneous onset along a sagittal band, whereas ML microstimulation evoked a slowly propagating wave traveling about 25 cm/s. The response similarity to IO and WM microstimulation suggests that the responses to WM microstimulation are dominated by activation of its climbing fibers. The Cb's role in the generation of precise motor control may result from these temporal and topographic differences in orthogonally oriented pathways. Optical recordings of the turtle's thin flat Cb can provide insights into that role.

Type-1 metabotropic glutamate receptor in cerebellar Purkinje cells: a key molecule responsible for long-term depression, endocannabinoid signalling and synapse elimination

The cerebellum is a brain structure involved in the coordination, control and learning of movements, and elucidation of its function is an important issue. Japanese scholars have made seminal contributions in this field of neuroscience. Electrophysiological studies of the cerebellum have a long history in Japan since the pioneering works by Ito and Sasaki. Elucidation of the basic circuit diagram of the cerebellum in the 1960s was followed by the construction of cerebellar network theories and finding of their neural correlates in the 1970s. A theoretically predicted synaptic plasticity, long-term depression (LTD) at parallel fibre to Purkinje cell synapse, was demonstrated experimentally in 1982 by Ito and co-workers. Since then, Japanese neuroscientists from various disciplines participated in this field and have made major contributions to elucidate molecular mechanisms underlying LTD. An important pathway for LTD induction is type-1 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR1) and its downstream signal transduction in Purkinje cells. Sugiyama and co-workers demonstrated the presence of mGluRs and Nakanishi and his pupils identified the molecular structures and functions of the mGluR family. Moreover, the authors contributed to the discovery and elucidation of several novel functions of mGluR1 in cerebellar Purkinje cells. mGluR1 turned out to be crucial for the release of endocannabinoid from Purkinje cells and the resultant retrograde suppression of transmitter release. It was also found that mGluR1 and its downstream signal transduction in Purkinje cells are indispensable for the elimination of redundant synapses during post-natal cerebellar development. This article overviews the seminal works by Japanese neuroscientists, focusing on mGluR1 signalling in cerebellar Purkinje cells.

Fos expression at the cerebellum following non-contact arousal and mating behavior in male rats

The cerebellum is considered a center underlying fine movements, cognition, memory and sexual responses. The latter feature led us to correlate sexual arousal and copulation in male rats with neural activity at the cerebellar cortex. Two behavioral paradigms were used in this investigation: the stimulation of males by distant receptive females (non-contact sexual stimulation), and the execution of up to three consecutive ejaculations. The vermis area of the cerebellum was removed following behavioral experiments, cut into sagittal sections, and analyzed with Fos immunohistochemistry to determine neuronal activation. At the mid-vermis region (sections from the midline to 0.1 mm laterally), non-contact stimulation significantly increased the activity of granule neurons. The number of activated cells increased in every lobule, but lobules 1 and 6 to 9 showed the greatest increment. In sexual behavior tests, males reaching one ejaculation had a high number of activated neurons similar to those counted after non-contact stimulation. However, two or three consecutive ejaculations showed a smaller number of Fos-ir cells. In contrast to the mid-vermis region, sections farthest from the midline (0.1 to 0.9 mm laterally) revealed that only lobule 7 expressed activated neurons. These data suggest that a well-delineated group of granule neurons have a sexual biphasic response at the cerebellar vermis, and that Fos in them is under an active degradation mechanism. Thus, they participate as a neural substrate for male rat sexual responses with an activation-deactivation process corresponding with the sensory stimulation and motor performance occurring during copulation.

Linking synaptic plasticity and spike output at excitatory and inhibitory synapses onto cerebellar Purkinje cells

Understanding the relationship between synaptic plasticity and neuronal output is essential if we are to understand how plasticity is encoded in neural circuits. In the cerebellar cortex, motor learning is thought to be implemented by long-term depression (LTD) of excitatory parallel fiber (PF) to Purkinje cell synapses triggered by climbing fiber (CF) input. However, theories of motor learning generally neglect the contribution of plasticity of inhibitory inputs to Purkinje cells. Here we describe how CF-induced plasticity of both excitatory and inhibitory inputs is reflected in Purkinje cell spike output. We show that coactivation of the CF with PF input and interneuron input leads not only to LTD of PF synapses but also to comparable, "balanced" LTD of evoked inhibitory inputs. These two forms of plasticity have opposite effects on the spike output of Purkinje cells, with the number and timing of spikes sensitively reflecting the degree of plasticity. We used dynamic clamp to evaluate plasticity-induced changes in spike responses to sequences of excitation and feedforward inhibition of varied relative and absolute amplitude. Balanced LTD of both excitatory and inhibitory components decreased the net spike output of Purkinje cells only for inputs with small inhibitory components, whereas for inputs with a larger proportion of feedforward inhibition CF-triggered LTD resulted in an increase in the net spike output. Thus, the net effect of CF-triggered plasticity on Purkinje cell output depends on the balance of excitation and feedforward inhibition and can paradoxically increase cerebellar output, contrary to current theories of cerebellar motor learning.

Cerebellar cortical molecular layer inhibition is organized in parasagittal zones

Molecular layer inhibitory interneurons generate on-beam and off-beam inhibition in the cerebellar cortex that is hypothesized to control the timing and/or spatial patterning of Purkinje cell discharge. On- and off-beam inhibition has been assumed to be spatially uniform and continuous within a folium. Using flavoprotein autofluorescence optical imaging in the mouse cerebellar cortex in vivo, this study demonstrates that the inhibition evoked by parallel fiber and peripheral stimulation results in parasagittal bands of decreases in fluorescence that correspond to zebrin II-positive bands. The parasagittal bands of decreased fluorescence are abolished by GABA(A) antagonists and reflect the activity of molecular layer interneurons on their targets. The same banding pattern was observed using Ca2+ imaging. The bands produce spatially specific decreases in the responses to peripheral input. Therefore, molecular layer inhibition is compartmentalized into zebrin II parasagittal domains that differentially modulate the spatial pattern of cerebellar cortical activity.

Cerebellar granule cell: ascending axon and parallel fiber

Morphometric data have indicated that most (> 95%) of the granule cell axonal synapses are located along the parallel fibers. The ascending axons of granule cells, however, exert powerful excitatory effects on the activities of Purkinje cells. To resolve this apparent conflict, we propose that some of the parallel fiber synapses overlying a functionally homogeneous granule cell patch can discharge in close synchrony with the ascending axon synapses from that same granule cell patch, thereby augmenting the excitatory action from ascending axons. Moreover, we also propose that age may be an important factor in the ascending axon synapses. We examined the synaptic varicosities along the ascending axons and parallel fibers in the anterior lobe of the male NIA C57BL/6j mouse. Between 2.5 and 10 months, the fraction of synaptic varicosities anatomically associated with the ascending axons increased from 2.6% to 6.6% whereas the fraction of synaptic varicosities that can discharge in synchrony with ascending axon synapses (including some parallel fiber synapses) increased from 17.3% to 39% (assuming a granule cell patch of 300 x 300 microm). The results of the present study may be relevant to understanding the role of the ascending axon vs. the parallel fibers. Differential age-related synaptic changes in these two portions of the granule cell axons may constitute an important age-dependent synaptic remodeling in the granule cell-Purkinje cell synaptic system.

Normal motor learning during pharmacological prevention of Purkinje cell long-term depression

Systemic delivery of (1R-1-benzo thiophen-5-yl-2[2-diethylamino)-ethoxy] ethanol hydrochloride (T-588) prevented long-term depression (LTD) of the parallel fiber (PF)-Purkinje cell (PC) synapse induced by conjunctive climbing fiber and PF stimulation in vivo. However, similar concentrations of T-588 in the brains of behaving mice and rats affected neither motor learning in the rotorod test nor the learning of motor timing during classical conditioning of the eyeblink reflex. Rats given doses of T-588 that prevented PF-PC LTD were as proficient as controls in learning to adapt the timing of their conditioned eyeblink response to a 150- or 350-ms change in the timing of the paradigm. The experiment indicates that PF-PC LTD under control of the climbing fibers is not required for general motor adaptation or the learning of response timing in two common models of motor learning for which the cerebellum has been implicated. Alternative mechanisms for motor timing and possible functions for LTD in protection from excitotoxicity are discussed.

Detection of sequences in the cerebellar cortex: numerical estimate of the possible number of tidal-wave inducing sequences represented

The two major cortices of the brain--the cerebral and cerebellar cortex--are massively connected through intercalated nuclei (pontine, cerebellar and thalamic nuclei). We suggest that the two cortices co-operate by generating precise temporal patterns in the cerebral cortex that are detected in the cerebellar cortex as temporal patterns assembled spatially in the mossy fibers. We will begin by showing that the tidal-wave mechanism works in the cerebellar cortex as a read-out mechanism for such spatio-temporal patterns due to the synchronous activity they generate in the parallel fiber system which drives the Purkinje cells--the output neurons of the cerebellar cortex--to fire action potentials. We will review the anatomy of the mossy fibers and show that within a "beam", or "row" of cerebellar cortex the mossy fibers in principle could embed a vast number of tidal-wave generating sequences. Based on anatomical data we will argue that the cerebellar mossy fiber-granule cell-Purkinje cell system can potentially detect and--through learning--select from an enormous number of spatio-temporal patterns.

Imaging parallel fiber and climbing fiber responses and their short-term interactions in the mouse cerebellar cortex in vivo

A major question in the study of cerebellar cortical function is how parallel fiber and climbing fiber inputs interact to shape information processing. Emphasis has been placed on the long-term effects due to conjunctive stimulation of climbing fibers and parallel fibers. Much less emphasis has been placed on short-term interactions and their spatial nature. To address this question the responses to parallel fiber and climbing fiber inputs and their short-term interaction were characterized using optical imaging with Neutral Red in the anesthetized mouse in vivo. Electrical stimulation of the cerebellar surface evoked an increase in fluorescence consisting of a transverse optical beam. The linear relationship between the optical responses and stimulus parameters, high spatial resolution and close coupling to the electrophysiological recordings show the utility of this imaging methodology. The majority of the optical response was due to activation of postsynaptic alpha-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA) and metabotropic glutamate receptors with a minor contribution from the presynaptic parallel fibers. Stimulation of the inferior olive evoked parasagittal bands that were abolished by blocking AMPA glutamate receptors. Conjunctive stimulation of the cerebellar surface and inferior olive resulted in inhibition of the climbing fiber evoked optical responses. This lateral inhibition of the parasagittal bands extended out from both sides of an activated parallel fiber beam and was mediated by GABA(A) but not GABA(B) receptors. One hypothesized role for lateral inhibition of this type is to spatially focus the interactions between parallel fiber and climbing fiber input on Purkinje cells. In summary optical imaging with Neutral Red permitted visualization of cerebellar cortical responses to parallel fiber and climbing fiber activation. The GABA(A) dependent lateral inhibition of the climbing fiber evoked parasagittal bands by parallel fiber stimulation shows that cerebellar interneurons play a short-term role in shaping the responses of Purkinje cells to climbing fiber input.

Structural contributions to short-term synaptic plasticity

Synaptic ultrastructure is critical to many basic hypotheses about synaptic transmission. Various aspects of synaptic ultrastructure have also been implicated in the mechanisms of short-term plasticity. These forms of plasticity can greatly affect synaptic strength during ongoing activity. We review the evidence for how synaptic ultrastructure may contribute to facilitation, depletion, saturation, and desensitization.

Repetitive firing of rat cerebellar parallel fibres after a single stimulation

The excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) evoked in Purkinje cells (PCs) by stimulating parallel fibres (PFs) usually show a single peak, but EPSCs with multiple peaks (polyphasic EPSCs) can be observed in slices from animals older than 15 days. The EPSCs remain polyphasic when the postsynaptic current is reduced (either by reducing the intensity of the PF stimulation or by adding AMPA receptor antagonists) and when the PC membrane potential is made positive. Thus the late peaks are not due to postsynaptic active currents generated in the imperfectly clamped PC, and must arise from repetitive action potentials in the PF. Extracellular recordings from granule cell (GC) somata showed that a single PF stimulation can elicit a doublet or a train of action potentials. Both the late action potentials recorded in the GCs and the late peaks of the polyphasic EPSCs recorded in the PCs were reduced or abolished by paired-pulse stimulation of the PF or by bath application of the GABA(A) agonist muscimol. The late action potentials in the GCs were also suppressed by local application of muscimol around the cell body. We propose that after a single stimulation of a PF, the antidromic invasion of the ascending axon and the granule cell can trigger a doublet or a burst of action potentials which back-propagate into the PF (except for the first, which finds the PF still in its refractory period). The repetitive activation of the PF by a single stimulation could play a role in the induction of long-term depression.