Potassium currents in cultured rabbit retinal pigment epithelial cells

Effect of epiretinal electrical stimulation on the glial cells in a rabbit retinal eyecup model

Introduction

We examined how pulse train electrical stimulation of the inner surface of the rabbit retina effected the resident glial cells. We used a rabbit retinal eyecup preparation model, transparent stimulus electrodes, and optical coherence tomography (OCT). The endfeet of Müller glia processes line the inner limiting membrane (ILM).

Methods

To examine how epiretinal electrode stimulation affected the Müller glia, we labeled them post stimulation using antibodies against soluble glutamine synthetase (GS). After 5 min 50 Hz pulse train stimulation 30 μm from the surface, the retina was fixed, immunostained for Müller glia, and examined using confocal microscopic reconstruction. Stimulus pulse charge densities between 133-749 μC/cm2/ph were examined.

Results

High charge density stimulation (442-749 μC/cm2/ph) caused significant losses in the GS immunofluorescence of the Müller glia endfeet under the electrode. This loss of immunofluorescence was correlated with stimuli causing ILM detachment when measured using OCT. Müller cells show potassium conductances at rest that are blocked by barium ions. Using 30 msec 20 μA stimulus current pulses across the eyecup, the change in transretinal resistance was examined by adding barium to the Ringer. Barium caused little change in the transretinal resistance, suggesting under low charge density stimulus pulse conditions, the Müller cell radial conductance pathway for these stimulus currents was small. To examine how epiretinal electrode stimulation affected the microglia, we used lectin staining 0-4 h post stimulation. After stimulation at high charge densities 749 μC/cm2/ph, the microglia under the electrode appeared rounded, while the local microglia outside the electrode responded to the stimulated retina by process orientation inwards in a ring by 30 min post stimulation.

Discussion

Our study of glial cells in a rabbit eyecup model using transparent electrode imaging suggests that epiretinal electrical stimulation at high pulse charge densities, can injure the Müller and microglia cells lining the inner retinal surface in addition to ganglion cells.

OUP accepted manuscript

Human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is extensively used in RPE research, disease modeling, and transplantation therapies. For successful outcomes, a thorough evaluation of their physiological authenticity is a necessity. Essential determinants of this are the different ion channels of the RPE, yet studies evaluating this machinery in hPSC-RPE are scarce. We examined the functionality and localization of potassium (K⁺) channels in the human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived RPE. We observed a heterogeneous pattern of voltage-gated K⁺ (K_V) and inwardly rectifying K⁺ (Kir) channels. Delayed rectifier currents were recorded from most of the cells, and immunostainings showed the presence of K_V1.3 channel. Sustained M-currents were also present in the hESC-RPE, and based on immunostaining, these currents were carried by KCNQ1-KCNQ5 channel types. Some cells expressed transient A-type currents characteristic of native human fetal RPE (hfRPE) and cultured primary RPE and carried by K_V1.4 and K_V4.2 channels. Of the highly important Kir channels, we found that Kir7.1 is present both at the apical and basolateral membranes of the hESC- and fresh native mouse RPE. Kir currents, however, were recorded only from 14% of the hESC-RPE cells with relatively low amplitudes. Compared to previous studies, our data suggest that in the hESC-RPE, the characteristics of the delayed rectifier and M-currents resemble native adult RPE, while A-type and Kir currents resemble native hfRPE or cultured primary RPE. Overall, the channelome of the RPE is a sensitive indicator of maturity and functionality affecting its therapeutic utility.

Voltage-dependent ion channels in the mouse RPE: comparison with Norrie disease mice

We studied electrophysiological properties of cultured retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells from mouse and a mouse model for Norrie disease. Wild-type RPE cells revealed the expression of ion channels known from other species: delayed-rectifier K(+) channels composed of Kv1.3 subunits, inward rectifier K(+) channels, Ca(V)1.3 L-type Ca(2+) channels and outwardly rectifying Cl(-) channels. Expression pattern and the ion channel characteristics current density, blocker sensitivity, kinetics and voltage-dependence were compared in cells from wild-type and Norrie mice. Although no significant differences were observed, our study provides a base for future studies on ion channel function and dysfunction in transgenic mouse models.

The retinal pigment epithelium in visual function

Located between vessels of the choriocapillaris and light-sensitive outer segments of the photoreceptors, the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) closely interacts with photoreceptors in the maintenance of visual function. Increasing knowledge of the multiple functions performed by the RPE improved the understanding of many diseases leading to blindness. This review summarizes the current knowledge of RPE functions and describes how failure of these functions causes loss of visual function. Mutations in genes that are expressed in the RPE can lead to photoreceptor degeneration. On the other hand, mutations in genes expressed in photoreceptors can lead to degenerations of the RPE. Thus both tissues can be regarded as a functional unit where both interacting partners depend on each other.

Stimulation of L-type Ca(2+) channels by increase of intracellular InsP3 in rat retinal pigment epithelial cells

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of voltage-dependent L-type Ca(2+)channels in intracellular Ca(2+)signaling of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Patch-clamp techniques in conjunction with measurements of the intracellular free Ca(2+)using the Ca(2+)-sensitive fluorescence dye fura-2 were performed using cultured rat RPE cells. Intracellular application of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3; 10 microM) via the patch-pipette during the whole-cell configuration led to an increase in the intracellular free Ca(2+)([Ca(2+)](i)). This effect could be reduced by the L-type Ca(2+)channel blocker nifedipine (2 microM). At the moment of the maximal rise in [Ca(2+)](i)L-type currents displayed an increase in the current density and shifts in the activation curve and of the steady-state inactivation. Comparable changes of L-type channel activity could be observed by induction of capacitative Ca(2+)entry, a maneuver to release Ca(2+)from intracellular Ca(2+)stores independently from InsP3. The increase in L-type Ca(2+)channel activity and [Ca(2+)](i)by intracellular application of InsP3 or induction of capacitative Ca(2+)entry could be inhibited by blocking tyrosine kinase activity using genistein (5 microM) or tyrphostin 51 (10 microM). It is concluded that L-type Ca(2+)channels are involved in the Ca(2+)/InsP3 second messenger system by generating an influx of extracellular Ca(2+)into the cell. This is enabled by depletion of cytosolic Ca(2+)stores and tyrosine kinase-dependent activation of L-type channels.

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) in brain neurons and retinal pigment epithelial cells act via stimulation of neuroendocrine L-type channels (Ca(v)1.3)

In contrast to the fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1), little is known about intracellular signaling of FGFR2. The signaling cascade of FGFR2 was studied using the perforated patch configuration of the patch-clamp technique in cultured rat retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells that express both FGFR1 and FGFR2. Interaction of signaling proteins was studied using immunoprecipitation techniques with membrane proteins from RPE cells and freshly isolated rat brain. When Ba(2+) currents through L-type channels were studied, extracellular application of bFGF (10 ng/ml) led to a shift of the steady-state activation to more negative values. In 50% of cells, an additional increase in maximal current amplitude was observed. This effect was blocked by the tyrosine kinase inhibitor lavendustin A (10(-5) M) but was not influenced by the FGFR1 blocker SU5402 (2 x 10(-5) M) or by the blocker for src-kinase herbimycin A (10(-5) M). Immunoprecipitation of FGFR2 led to coprecipitation of alpha 1D Ca(2+) channel subunits and precipitation of alpha 1D subunits led to coprecipitation of FGFR2. Immunoprecipitation of FGFR1 did not result in the coprecipitation with alpha 1D Ca(2+) channel subunits. The coprecipitation results were comparable when using brain tissue and RPE cells. The alpha 1D subunit-specific band were stained with antiphosphotyrosine antibodies. We conclude that FGFR2 acts via a different signaling cascade than FGFR1. This cascade involves an src-kinase-independent, close functional interaction of FGFR2 and the alpha subunit of neuroendocrine L-type channels.

Voltage-dependent K(+) currents in spiral prominence epithelial cells of rat cochlea

It has been suggested that spiral prominence is associated with ion transport, but the characterization of ion channels has not been explored so far. We studied the electrical properties and ion conductances of the spiral prominence epithelial cells (SPECs), which are epithelial cells covering the luminal side of spiral prominence, in the upper turn of neonatal rat cochlea using a whole-cell variant patch clamp technique. The cell capacitance was 16.3+/-2.1 pF (n=33) and the resting membrane potential was -68. 9+/-2.5 mV (n=14) in perilymph-like bath solution. It was found that those SPECs possess a large voltage-activated, outwardly rectifying K(+) current and a small inwardly rectifying K(+) current. The outward K(+) current was activated by depolarizing pulses more positive than -30 mV, and sensitive to tetraethylammonium chloride (20 mM), 4-aminopyridine (10 mM), but not to Ba(2+) (0.5 mM). Tail current analysis revealed that it was primarily K(+)-selective. The time course of activation was well fitted by an exponential function raised to second power. The small inwardly rectifying K(+) current was sensitive to Ba(2+) (0.5 mM), and the Ba(2+)-sensitive current was K(+)-selective. In cell-attached or inside-out patch recordings, no discernible K(+) channel currents were found in the apical membrane of SPECs. Based on these results, we conclude that SPECs have two types of voltage-dependent K(+) currents, which are most likely located in the basolateral membrane.

Purinergic regulation of cation conductances and intracellular Ca2+ in cultured rat retinal pigment epithelial cells

1. We used whole-cell patch clamp and fluorescent calcium imaging techniques to investigate the effects of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) on membrane currents and intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i)in rat retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. In 62 % of RPE cells, application of 100 microM ATP elicited a fast inward current at negative membrane potentials. In 38 % of RPE cells recorded, a biphasic response to ATP was observed in which activation of the fast inward current was followed by activation of a delayed outward current. 2. The ATP-activated inward current was a non-selective cation (NSC) current that showed inward rectification, reversed at -1.5 +/- 1 mV and was permeable to monovalent cations. The NSC current was insensitive to the P2 purinoceptor antagonists, suramin or PPADS but was activated by the purinoceptor agonists UTP, ADP and 2MeSATP. 3. The outward current activated by ATP reversed at -68 +/- 3 mV (equilibrium potential for potassium (EK) = -84 mV) and was blocked by Ba2+ ions, consistent with the activation of a K+ conductance. The outward K+ conductance was also reduced by the maxi-KCa channel blocker iberiotoxin (IbTX; 10 nM), suggesting that ATP activated an outward Ca2+-activated K+ channel in rat RPE cells. The Ca2+-activated K+ current (IK(Ca)) was also activated by the purinoceptor agonists UTP, ADP and 2MeSATP. 4. In fluo-3 or fluo-4 loaded RPE cells, ATP and the pyrimidine agonist UTP elevated [Ca2+]i. The increase in Ca2+ was not dependent on extracellular Ca2+ influx, but was sensitive to the Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin, confirming the involvement of intracellular Ca2+ stores release. 5. These results suggest that rat RPE cells express both P2X purinoceptors that gate activation of a non-selective cation conductance and G protein-coupled P2Y purinoceptors that mediate Ca2+ release from intracellular stores and activation of a calcium-activated K+ current.

Adrenergic regulation of calcium-activated potassium current in cultured rabbit pigmented ciliary epithelial cells

1. The effects of adrenergic agonists on K+ currents were studied in cultured rabbit pigmented ciliary epithelial (PCE) cells. 2. Outward K+ current (IK) was reduced by tetraethylammonium chloride, the Ca2+-activated K+ (K(Ca)) channel blocker iberiotoxin (IbTX), or Ca2+-free external Ringer solution. The calcium ionophore ionomycin increased an IbTX-sensitive IK in PCE cells. 3. The adrenergic agonists adrenaline and phenylephrine increased IK in PCE cells. The induced current was blocked by IbTX and the alpha1-antagonist prazosin, suggesting that adrenergic agonists activate IK(Ca) via alpha1-adrenoreceptors. 4. Internal dialysis of D-myo-inositol 1,4, 5-trisphosphate (IP3) increased IK, whilst pre-incubation of PCE cells with thapsigargin or the phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor U-73122 reduced phenylephrine-induced increases in IK(Ca). Adrenergic increases in IK(Ca) were mediated by a pertussis toxin-insensitive G protein. 5. These results demonstrate that IK(Ca) channels in rabbit PCE cells are coupled to alpha1-adrenergic receptors and a PLC/IP3 signalling pathway. Activation of these channels may modulate fluid secretion by the ciliary epithelium.

Activation of a nonspecific cation current in rat cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells: involvement of a G(alpha i) subunit protein and the mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling pathway

1. Whole-cell patch-clamp recording techniques were used to investigate the G protein subtype and related signalling molecules involved in activation of a nonspecific cation (NSC) current in rat cultured retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. 2. Under control conditions, in 130 mM NaCl with K+ aspartate in the pipette, cytosolic dialysis with guanosine-5'-O-(3-triphosphate) (GTPgammaS, 0.1 mM) activated a large non-inactivating NSC current in 80% of the cells recorded from. 3. Loading RPE cells with antibodies (10 microg-ml(-1)) against the alpha subunit of all PTX-sensitive G proteins (G(alpha i/o/t/z)) reduced NSC current activation to 11%, while loading RPE cells with antibodies directed specifically against the alpha subunits of the Gi subclass (G(alpha i-3)) completely abolished current activation. In RPE cells loaded with anti-G(alpha s) activation of the NSC current was unaffected. 4. Investigation of the potential downstream mediators in the G(alpha i) NSC channel pathway revealed that activation of the cation conductance was unaffected by treatment of RPE cells with the selective protein kinase C inhibitor GF 109203X (3 microM) or the selective CaM kinase II inhibitor KN-93 (50 microM). However, NSC current activation was delayed and the current amplitude reduced in the presence of the nonselective kinase inhibitor H-7 (100 microM) or the selective inhibitor of MAPKK (MEK) activation, PD 98059 (50 microM). 5. In the absence of GTPgammaS, the NSC current was not activated by superfusion of the cells with the cyclic GMP kinase activator dibutyryl-cyclic GMP or with the adenylate cyclase activator forskolin. 6. These results support the involvement of a G protein of the G(alpha i) subclass in the activation of a NSC current in rat RPE cells, and suggest a potential modulatory role for MAP kinase-dependent phosphorylation in current regulation.

Activation of a Cl--conductance by protein kinase-dependent phosphorylation in cultured rat retinal pigment epithelial cells

While chloride conductances are involved in signals of the electroretinogram generated by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), patch-clamp experiments of freshly isolated or cultured RPE cells have shown that potassium conductances predominate. The purpose of this study was to investigate mechanisms which activate Cl--conductances in RPE cells. Membrane currents of cultured rat RPE cells were measured using the whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique under extra- and intracellular K+-free conditions. The bath solution was hyperosmolal to the pipette solution to prevent hypoosmotic swelling. Exchange of the physiological intracellular fluid by a pipette solution with physiological levels of ATP (2 mm) induced a continuous increase of membrane conductance. Conductance was blocked by DIDS (1 mm), and showed a reversal potential close to the Nernst potential for Cl-. When the experiments were carried out under conditions in which all cations, and not only potassium, were replaced by NMDG, the same responses could be observed. Current activation was independent of extracellular calcium. Chloride currents were also induced when ATPgammaS or AMP-PNP were used instead of ATP. In the presence of AMP-PNP currents were 10 times smaller than in the presence of ATP or ATPgammaS. In cells preincubated with staurosporine or chelerythrine no currents were induced. Establishing the whole-cell configuration with ATP and with myristoylated PKC substrate in addition, no voltage-dependent currents were activated. We conclude that ATP hydrolysis leads to activation of chloride currents via PKC in the whole-cell configuration. The perforated patch configuration, with the intracellular compartment intact, no currents were induced under otherwise identical experimental conditions. Inhibition of phosphatase by calyculin (10 nm) in the perforated-patch configuration did not change membrane conductance. In the intact cell, chloride conductance is possibly inhibited by a cytosolic factor which is washed out when the whole-cell configuration is established.

Two types of K+ currents in marginal cells cultured from rat stria vascularis

Membrane currents in marginal cells cultured from rat stria vascularis were studied using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Two types of voltage-dependent whole-cell currents were observed in the voltage range from -150 mV to +50 mV: an outwardly rectifying current and an inwardly rectifying current. The outwardly rectifying current, which was activated by depolarizing pulses more positive than -30 mV, was sensitive to TEA (20 mM) and relatively not to Ba2+ (0.5 mM). Tail current analysis revealed that the outward currents were primarily K+-selective. The conductance of the current was half-maximal at 0.5 mV and a substantial portion of current was not inactivated by the depolarizing prepulses from -30 mV to +20 mV. The inwardly rectifying current with rapid exponential activation was observed with hyperpolarizing voltage pulses. The zero-current potential of this current was dependent on extracellular K+ concentration. In contrast to the outwardly rectifying current, this current was blocked by extracellular application of Ba2+, not by TEA. The conductance of this current increased with the increase in external K+ concentration. Our data suggest that marginal cells cultured from rat stria vascularis express at least two types of voltage-dependent K+ currents which may serve as K+ secretory pathways into endolymph.