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Flemming HC, van Hullebusch ED, Little BJ, Neu TR, Nielsen PH, Seviour T, Stoodley P, Wingender J, Wuertz S. Microbial extracellular polymeric substances in the environment, technology and medicine. Nat Rev Microbiol 2024:10.1038/s41579-024-01098-y. [PMID: 39333414 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-024-01098-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 09/29/2024]
Abstract
Microbial biofilms exhibit a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), including polysaccharides, proteins, extracellular DNA and lipids. EPS promote interactions of the biofilm with other cells and sorption of organics, metals and chemical pollutants, and they facilitate cell adhesion at interfaces and ensure matrix cohesion. EPS have roles in various natural environments, such as soils, sediments and marine habitats. In addition, EPS are relevant in technical environments, such as wastewater and drinking water treatment facilities, and water distribution systems, and they contribute to biofouling and microbially influenced corrosion. In medicine, EPS protect pathogens within the biofilm against the host immune system and antimicrobials, and emerging evidence suggests that EPS can represent potential virulence factors. By contrast, EPS yield a wide range of valuable products that include their role in self-repairing concrete. In this Review, we aim to explore EPS as a functional unit of biofilms in the environment, in technology and in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Curt Flemming
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOCAS), Qingdao, China.
| | | | | | - Thomas R Neu
- Department of River Ecology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Per H Nielsen
- Center for Microbial Communities, Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Thomas Seviour
- Aarhus University Centre for Water Technology, Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Paul Stoodley
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity and the Department of Orthopaedics, the Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- National Centre for Advanced Tribology at Southampton (nCATS), National Biofilm Innovation Centre (NBIC), Mechanical Engineering, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Jost Wingender
- University of Duisburg-Essen, Faculty of Chemistry, Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Essen, Germany
| | - Stefan Wuertz
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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2
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Yuan B, Muir D, MacLeod M. Methods for trace analysis of short-, medium-, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins: Critical review and recommendations. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1074:16-32. [PMID: 31159936 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.02.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Many methods for quantifying chlorinated paraffins (CPs) yield only a total concentration of the mixture as a single value. With appropriate analytical instrumentation and quantification methods, more reliable and detailed analysis can be performed by quantifying total concentrations of short-, medium-, and long-chain CPs (SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs), and in the current optimal situation by quantifying individual carbon-chlorine congener groups (CnClm). Sample extraction and clean-up methods for other persistent organochlorines that have been adapted for recovery of CPs must be applied prior to quantification with appropriate quality assurance and quality control to ensure applicability of the methods for SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs. Part critical review, part tutorial, and part perspective, this paper provides practical guidance to analytical chemists who are interested in establishing a method for analysis of CPs in their lab facilities using commercial reference standards, or for expanding existing analysis of total CPs or SCCPs to analysis of SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs, or to analysis of CnClm congener groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Derek Muir
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, Canada
| | - Matthew MacLeod
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
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3
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Wei GL, Liang XL, Li DQ, Zhuo MN, Zhang SY, Huang QX, Liao YS, Xie ZY, Guo TL, Yuan ZJ. Occurrence, fate and ecological risk of chlorinated paraffins in Asia: A review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 92-93:373-87. [PMID: 27132163 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs), complex mixtures of polychlorinated alkanes, are widely used in various industries and are thus ubiquitous in the receiving environment. The present study comprehensively reviewed the occurrence, fate and ecological risk of CPs in various environmental matrices in Asia. Releases from the production and consumption of CPs or CP-containing materials, wastewater discharge and irrigation, sewage sludge application, long-range atmospheric transport and aerial deposition have been found to be most likely sources and transport mechanisms for the dispersion of CPs in various environmental matrices, such as air, water, sediment, soil and biota. CPs can be bioaccumulated in biota and biomagnified through food webs, likely causing toxic ecological effects in organisms and posing health risks to humans. Inhalation, dust ingestion and dietary intake are strongly suggested as the major routes of human exposure. Research gaps are discussed to highlight the perspectives of future research to improve future efforts regarding the analysis of CPs, the environmental occurrence and elimination of CPs, the total environmental pressure, and the risks to organisms and populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gao-Ling Wei
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environment Pollution Integrated Control, Guangdong Institute of Eco-Environmental and Soil Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Xiao-Liang Liang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mineralogy and Metallogeny, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Ding-Qiang Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environment Pollution Integrated Control, Guangdong Institute of Eco-Environmental and Soil Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China; Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510075, China.
| | - Mu-Ning Zhuo
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environment Pollution Integrated Control, Guangdong Institute of Eco-Environmental and Soil Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Si-Yi Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environment Pollution Integrated Control, Guangdong Institute of Eco-Environmental and Soil Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Qiu-Xin Huang
- CEPREI Environmental Assessment and Monitoring Center, The 5th Electronics Research Institute of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Guangzhou 510610, China
| | - Yi-Shan Liao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environment Pollution Integrated Control, Guangdong Institute of Eco-Environmental and Soil Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Zhen-Yue Xie
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environment Pollution Integrated Control, Guangdong Institute of Eco-Environmental and Soil Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Tai-Long Guo
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environment Pollution Integrated Control, Guangdong Institute of Eco-Environmental and Soil Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Zai-Jian Yuan
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Environment Pollution Integrated Control, Guangdong Institute of Eco-Environmental and Soil Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
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4
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van Mourik LM, Leonards PEG, Gaus C, de Boer J. Recent developments in capabilities for analysing chlorinated paraffins in environmental matrices: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2015; 136:259-72. [PMID: 26042608 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.05.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Concerns about the high production volumes, persistency, bioaccumulation potential and toxicity of chlorinated paraffin (CP) mixtures, especially short-chain CPs (SCCPs), are rising. However, information on their levels and fate in the environment is still insufficient, impeding international classifications and regulations. This knowledge gap is mainly due to the difficulties that arise with CP analysis, in particular the chromatographic separation within CPs and between CPs and other compounds. No fully validated routine analytical method is available yet and only semi-quantitative analysis is possible, although the number of studies reporting new and improved methods have rapidly increased since 2010. Better cleanup procedures that remove interfering compounds, and new instrumental techniques, which distinguish between medium-chain CPs (MCCPs) and SCCPs, have been developed. While gas chromatography coupled to an electron capture negative ionisation mass spectrometry (GC/ECNI-MS) remains the most commonly applied technique, novel and promising use of high resolution time of flight MS (TOF-MS) has also been reported. We expect that recent developments in high resolution TOF-MS and Orbitrap technologies will further improve the detection of CPs, including long-chain CPs (LCCPs), and the group separation and quantification of CP homologues. Also, new CP quantification methods have emerged, including the use of mathematical algorithms, multiple linear regression and principal component analysis. These quantification advancements are also reflected in considerably improved interlaboratory agreements since 2010. Analysis of lower chlorinated paraffins (<Cl5) remains, however, challenging and better approaches to analysing these homologues are needed. Furthermore, suitable quantification standards would facilitate improving the quality of CP analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise M van Mourik
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, The University of Queensland, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains 4108, Qld, Australia; VU University, Institute for Environmental Studies (IVM), De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Pim E G Leonards
- VU University, Institute for Environmental Studies (IVM), De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Caroline Gaus
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, The University of Queensland, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains 4108, Qld, Australia.
| | - Jacob de Boer
- VU University, Institute for Environmental Studies (IVM), De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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5
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Chen L, Huang Y, Han S, Feng Y, Jiang G, Tang C, Ye Z, Zhan W, Liu M, Zhang S. Sample pretreatment optimization for the analysis of short chain chlorinated paraffins in soil with gas chromatography–electron capture negative ion-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1274:36-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2012] [Revised: 12/01/2012] [Accepted: 12/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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6
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Zeng L, Wang T, Ruan T, Liu Q, Wang Y, Jiang G. Levels and distribution patterns of short chain chlorinated paraffins in sewage sludge of wastewater treatment plants in China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2012; 160:88-94. [PMID: 22035930 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2011.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2011] [Revised: 09/01/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Short chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are listed as persistent organic pollutant candidates in the Stockholm Convention and are receiving more and more attentions worldwide. In general, concentrations of contaminants in sewage sludge can give an important indication on their pollution levels at a local/regional basis. In this study, SCCPs were investigated in sewage sludge samples collected from 52 wastewater treatment plants in China. Concentrations of total SCCPs (ΣSCCPs) in sludge were in the range of 0.80-52.7 μg/g dry weight (dw), with a mean value of 10.7 μg/g dw. Most of SCCPs in the sludge samples showed a similar congener distribution patterns, and C(11) and Cl(7,8) were identified as the dominant carbon and chlorine congener groups. Significant linear relationships were found among different SCCP congener groups (r(2) ≥ 0.9). High concentrations of SCCPs in sewage sludge imply that SCCPs are widely present in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixi Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China
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7
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Optimized cleanup method for the determination of short chain polychlorinated n-alkanes in sediments by high resolution gas chromatography/electron capture negative ion–low resolution mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2011; 703:187-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Accepted: 07/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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8
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Clarke BO, Smith SR. Review of 'emerging' organic contaminants in biosolids and assessment of international research priorities for the agricultural use of biosolids. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2011; 37:226-47. [PMID: 20797791 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2010.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 439] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2009] [Revised: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 06/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A broad spectrum of organic chemicals is essential to modern society. Once discharged from industrial, domestic and urban sources into the urban wastewater collection system they may transfer to the residual solids during wastewater treatment and assessment of their significance and implications for beneficial recycling of the treated sewage sludge biosolids is required. Research on organic contaminants (OCs) in biosolids has been undertaken for over thirty years and the increasing body of evidence demonstrates that the majority of compounds studied do not place human health at risk when biosolids are recycled to farmland. However, there are 143,000 chemicals registered in the European Union for industrial use and all could be potentially found in biosolids. Therefore, a literature review of 'emerging' OCs in biosolids has been conducted for a selection of chemicals of potential concern for land application based upon human toxicity, evidence of adverse effects on the environment and endocrine disruption. To identify monitoring and research priorities the selected chemicals were ranked using an assessment matrix approach. Compounds were evaluated based upon environmental persistence, human toxicity, evidence of bioaccumulation in humans and the environment, evidence of ecotoxicity and the number and quality of studies focussed on the contaminant internationally. The identified chemicals of concern were ranked in decreasing order of priority: perfluorinated chemicals (PFOS, PFOA); polychlorinated alkanes (PCAs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs); organotins (OTs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), triclosan (TCS), triclocarban (TCC); benzothiazoles; antibiotics and pharmaceuticals; synthetic musks; bisphenol A, quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), steroids; phthalate acid esters (PAEs) and polydimethylsiloxanes (PDMSs). A number of issues were identified and recommendations for the prioritisation of further research and monitoring of 'emerging' OCs for the agricultural use of biosolids are provided. In particular, a number of 'emerging' OCs (PFOS, PFOA and PCAs) were identified for priority attention that are environmentally persistent and potentially toxic with unique chemical properties, or are present in large concentrations in sludge, that make it theoretically possible for them to enter human and ecological food-chains from biosolids-amended soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley O Clarke
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, UK
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9
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Analysis of Chlorinated Paraffins in Environmental Matrices: The Ultimate Challenge for the Analytical Chemist. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/698_2009_39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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10
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Feo M, Eljarrat E, Barceló D, Barceló D. Occurrence, fate and analysis of polychlorinated n-alkanes in the environment. Trends Analyt Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2009.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Santos FJ, Parera J, Galceran MT. Analysis of polychlorinated n-alkanes in environmental samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 386:837-57. [PMID: 16943992 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0685-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2006] [Revised: 07/05/2006] [Accepted: 07/17/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Polychlorinated n-alkanes (PCAs), also known as chlorinated paraffins (CPs), are highly complex technical mixtures that contain a huge number of structural isomers, theoretically more than 10,000 diastereomers and enantiomers. As a consequence of their persistence, tendency to bioaccumulation, and widespread and unrestricted use, PCAs have been found in aquatic and terrestrial food webs, even in rural and remote areas. Recently, these compounds have been included in regulatory programs of several international organizations, including the US Environmental Protection Agency and the European Union. Consequently, there is a growing demand for reliable methods with which to analyze PCAs in environmental samples. Here, we review current trends and recent developments in the analysis of PCAs in environmental samples such as air, water, sediment, and biota. Practical aspects of sample preparation, chromatographic separation, and detection are covered, with special emphasis placed on analysis of PCAs using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The advantages and limitations of these techniques as well as recent improvements in quantification procedures are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Santos
- Departament de Química Analítica, Universitat de Barcelona, Diagonal 647, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
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12
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13
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Korytár P, Leonards PEG, de Boer J, Brinkman UAT. Group separation of organohalogenated compounds by means of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2005; 1086:29-44. [PMID: 16130654 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2005.05.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Separations of 12 compound classes, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), diphenyl ethers (PCDEs), naphthalenes (PCNs), dibenzothiophenes (PCDTs), dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), terphenyls (PCTs) and alkanes (PCAs), toxaphene, organohalogenated pesticides (OCPs), and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) and diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography were evaluated. Five column combinations, DB-1 x 007-210, DB-1 x HT-8, DB-1 x LC-50, DB-1 x 007-65HT and DB-1 x VF-23ms were used to study, primarily, group-type separations, but attention was devoted also to within-class separation, especially for those classes which were not addressed in much detail before, the PCNs, OCPs, PBBs and PCTs. The DB-1 x 007-210 column set did not offer any extra separation compared to one-dimensional GC. For the DB-1 x HT-8 column combination, the useful principle of congener separation on the basis of number of halogen substituents in a molecule was confirmed (PCBs, toxaphene) and extended (PCTs, PBDEs). No practically useful group-type separation was observed for this column combination. The DB-1 x LC-50 set provides group separation based on planarity: planar compounds such as PCDDs, PCDFs, PCDTs and PCNs are much more retained than, and therefore separated from, non-planar analytes. Within the classes of PCBs, PBBs and PCTs highly useful separation of planar from non-planar compounds was also observed. The DB-1 x 007-65HT column set effectively separates PCAs and PBDEs from all other compound classes, and provides a good separation of brominated and chlorinated analogue classes from each other. This column set was the most efficient one for within-class separation of OCPs and PCNs. Finally, DB-1 x VF-23ms yields excellent within-class separations, especially of non-aromatic compounds, viz. OCPs, toxaphene and PCAs. No group separation was observed here. The applicability of the approach was demonstrated for a sediment extract and a dust extract. In the sediment extract, PCDDs, PCDFs, PCAs and PCNs were identified and their efficient separation was achieved. In the dust sample, separation of PCAs and PBDEs was achieved and several new PBDE congeners were identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Korytár
- Netherlands Institute for Fisheries Research, PO Box 68, 1970 AB IJmuiden, The Netherlands.
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14
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Korytár P, Parera J, Leonards PEG, Santos FJ, de Boer J, Brinkman UAT. Characterization of polychlorinated n-alkanes using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography–electron-capture negative ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2005; 1086:71-82. [PMID: 16130657 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2005.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with electron-capture negative ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC x GC-ECNI-TOF-MS) is used to study the composition and characteristics of short-, medium- and long-chain polychlorinated n-alkane (PCA) mixtures. Distinct ordered structures, which enable the highlighting and interpretation of group and sub-group separations are observed when using a DB-1 x 007-65HT column combination. The analysis of a number of, mutually rather different, technical mixtures and 35 individual standard compounds provides information on the role of chlorine substitution (number of substituents as well as their position), the contribution of carbon versus chlorine atoms to analyte volatility, i.e. GC x GC behaviour, and the influence of the chain length of the carbon skeleton. Two dust samples are analyzed to illustrate the practical usefulness of the proposed procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Korytár
- Netherlands Institute for Fisheries Research, P.O. Box 68, 1970 AB IJmuiden, The Netherlands.
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15
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Ueberschär KH, Matthes S. Dose–response feeding study of chlorinated paraffins in broiler chickens: effects on growth rate and tissue distribution. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 21:943-8. [PMID: 15712519 DOI: 10.1080/02652030400006833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Even with the highest additions of 100mg kg(-1) short-chain (C10-C13) chlorinated paraffins (CP) to feed, the health of broilers was not adversely affected during a 31-day feeding experiment. In addition, 1 and 3 weeks after the experiment started, growth rate and feed consumption of the young animals were not impaired. No significant influence on mortality, organ weight relative to live weight or performance (weight gain, feed consumption) was noted. The CP concentrations in abdominal fat, meat, liver and kidneys were related linearly to the CP concentration of the feed. The highest contents were analysed in fat and the faeces, and the lowest concentrations were found in blood, meat and bile fluid. Less than 5% of the CP amount consumed was incorporated into the body, without taking the head, gut, feet and feathers into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- K H Ueberschär
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Federal Agricultural Research Centre, Braunschweig (FAL), D-29223 Celle, Germany.
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16
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Stevens JL, Northcott GL, Stern GA, Tomy GT, Jones KC. PAHs, PCBs, PCNs, organochlorine pesticides, synthetic musks, and polychlorinated n-alkanes in U.K. sewage sludge: survey results and implications. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2003; 37:462-467. [PMID: 12630459 DOI: 10.1021/es020161y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A survey of the digested sludge from 14 U.K. wastewater treatment plants was carried out to obtain contemporary U.K. data on the concentrations of certain classes of persistent organic compounds for which data are scarce and to assess whether U.K. sludge was likely to comply with the sludge limits for PCBs and PAHs proposed by the European Union. Total PAH (24 compounds) concentrations ranged from 67 to 370 mg/kg dw, in line with data from other countries; all the samples would exceed the proposed EU limit. Total PCB concentrations were 110-440 microg/kg dw, well below the proposed EU limit. Total PCN concentrations ranged from 50 to 190 microg/kg. Total synthetic musk concentrations ranged from 2.1 to 86 mg/kg dw; there were a few very high concentrations of HHCB and AHTN in the samples. Total concentrations of the short- and medium-chained polychlorinated alkanes ranged between 7 and 200 mg/kg and between 30 and 9700 mg/kg, respectively. These very high concentrations are indicative of chemicals with numerous and ongoing diffuse sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna L Stevens
- Environmental Science Department, Institute of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YQ, UK
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17
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Koh IO, Rotard W, Thiemann WHP. Analysis of chlorinated paraffins in cutting fluids and sealing materials by carbon skeleton reaction gas chromatography. CHEMOSPHERE 2002; 47:219-227. [PMID: 11993637 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(01)00293-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) pose a major risk in the environment, due to their wide application, to their persistence, to their carcinogenic potential, and in view of the fact, that they cannot be easily identified. Various commercial cutting fluids and sealing materials were analysed for CPs with carbon skeleton reaction gas chromatography (GC) and flame ionization detection. CPs are simultaneously dechlorinated and hydrogenated to the corresponding alkanes with Pd catalyst material in the GC injector. With this method, the carbon chain length of commercial technical CPs was determined. In six of sixteen sealing materials we found five short and one medium chain length polychlorinated paraffins in percentages of 9-16% (w/w). In five cutting fluids we found predominantly medium to long chain length chloroparaffins with percentages of 2.5-31% (w/w), only one fluid contained short chain CPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- In-Ock Koh
- Department of Physical and Environmental Chemistry, University of Bremen, Germany.
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18
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Ballschmite K, Hackenberg R, Jarman WM, Looser R. Man-made chemicals found in remote areas of the world: the experimental definition for POPs. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2002; 9:274-88. [PMID: 12214720 DOI: 10.1007/bf02987503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Members of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE) signed a legally binding protocol on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in February 1998 under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. A treaty that intends to control the production, import, export, disposal and use of toxic chemicals that persist for decades in the environment has been formally signed at a conference in May 2001 in Stockholm. The 2001 POP treaty, like the 1998 LRTAP POP protocol, contains a provision on adding further chemicals to the initial group of twelve or fifteen. The occurrence of a compound or a group of compounds in so called remote and pristine areas, e.g. in the Artic or in the Southern Hemisphere, proves its stability under the chemical and biological conditions of the environment. Compounds identified in this way, in samples taken primarily in very remote regions of the planet, are classified by their environmental fate and global distribution as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), regardless of any political assessments.
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Koch M, Knoth W, Rotard W. Source identification of PCDD/Fs in a sewage treatment plant of a German village. CHEMOSPHERE 2001; 43:737-741. [PMID: 11372859 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(00)00427-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The PCDD/F levels in the sewage sludge of a village in North-East Germany were substantially above the limit of 100 pg I-TEq/g for sludge applied to land. A study was initiated to identify the PCDD/F sources in the sewage of this treatment plant. It was found that the PCDD/F contamination entered the plant through the faecal inlet, where the content of faecal storage tanks was emptied into the treatment plant. The isomeric patterns of the higher chlorinated homologues were similar to that of PCP, while incineration showed some influence on the lower chlorinated homologues. Cluster analysis revealed a profile similar to that of PCP.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Koch
- Technische Universität Berlin, Fachgebiet Umweltchemie, Germany.
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Koh IO, Thiemann W. Study of photochemical oxidation of standard chlorinated paraffins and identification of degradation products. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(00)00427-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Coelhan M. Determination of Short-Chain Polychlorinated Paraffins in Fish Samples by Short-Column GC/ECNI-MS. Anal Chem 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/ac9904359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Coelhan
- Chair for Chemical Technical Analysis of the Technical University Munich, 85350 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
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Alcock RE, Sweetman A, Jones KC. Assessment of organic contaminant fate in waste water treatment plants. I: Selected compounds and physicochemical properties. CHEMOSPHERE 1999; 38:2247-2262. [PMID: 10101865 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(98)00444-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
An extensive and comprehensive literature review has been conducted for compounds which we hypothesise could be present in sludge and maintain their integrity following application to agricultural land. The following compounds have been selected for review; chlorinated paraffins, quintozene, brominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated naphthalenes, polydimethylsiloxanes, chloronitrobenzenes, and a range of biologically active and pharmaceutical compounds. All have received interest as a result of their persistence and/or toxicity in environmental media. Physicochemical property information has also been compiled and/or calculated. In this way, an accompanying paper will attempt to predict compound fate in waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) and assess likely transfers from soil/plants to grazing livestock. These papers describe a first attempt to predict the fate of these classes of compounds in the environment and prioritise those of greatest concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Alcock
- Department of Environmental Science, Lancaster University, UK
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Looser R, Ballschmiter K. Gas chromatographic separation of semivolatile organohalogen compounds on the new stationary phase Optima δ-3. J Chromatogr A 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(98)01063-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Tomy GT, Fisk AT, Westmore JB, Muir DC. Environmental chemistry and toxicology of polychlorinated n-alkanes. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 1998; 158:53-128. [PMID: 9751033 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4612-1708-4_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Polychlorinated-n-alkanes (PCAs) or chlorinated paraffins consist of C10 to C30 n-alkanes with chlorine content from 30% to 70% by mass. PCAs are used as high-temperature lubricants, plasticizers, flame retardants, and additives in adhesives, paints, rubber, and sealants. This review presents the existing data on the environmental chemistry and toxicology of PCAs and a preliminary exposure and risk assessment. There is limited information on the levels, fate, or biological effects of PCAs in the environment. This results both from the difficulty associated with quantifying PCAs, because of the complexity inherent to commercial formulations, and from the limited knowledge of their physicochemical properties and biodegradation rates. There are indications that PCAs are widespread environmental contaminants at ng/L levels in surface waters and ng/g (wet wt) levels in biota. However, environmental measurements of PCAs are very limited in the U.S. and Canada, and are only slightly more detailed in western Europe. Assuming that reported water concentrations are mainly caused by the short chain (C10-C13) compounds, aquatic organisms may be at risk from exposure to PCAs. Fugacity level II modeling for two representative PCAs, using the best available physicochemical property data and estimated degradation rates, suggested that C16C24Cl10 would achieve higher concentrations in biota, sediment, and soil than C12H20Cl6 because of slower degradation rates and lower water solubility. Environmental residence time of C16H24Cl10 is estimated to be 520 d compared to 210 d for C12H20Cl6. Future studies will require better analytical methods and reference materials certified for PCA content. Additional data are needed to evaluate exposure of biota to PCAs in the environment, particularly in light of their continued production and usage around the globe.
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Affiliation(s)
- G T Tomy
- Freshwater Institute, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Winnipeg, Canada
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Tomy GT, Stern GA, Muir DCG, Fisk AT, Cymbalisty CD, Westmore JB. Quantifying C10−C13 Polychloroalkanes in Environmental Samples by High-Resolution Gas Chromatography/Electron Capture Negative Ion High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 1997. [DOI: 10.1021/ac961244y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gregg T. Tomy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada, and Freshwater Institute, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - Gary A. Stern
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada, and Freshwater Institute, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - Derek C. G. Muir
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada, and Freshwater Institute, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - Aaron T. Fisk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada, and Freshwater Institute, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - Chris D. Cymbalisty
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada, and Freshwater Institute, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - John B. Westmore
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada, and Freshwater Institute, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N6, Canada
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