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'Warburg effect' controls tumor growth, bacterial, viral infections and immunity - Genetic deconstruction and therapeutic perspectives. Semin Cancer Biol 2022; 86:334-346. [PMID: 35820598 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2022.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The evolutionary pressure for life transitioning from extended periods of hypoxia to an increasingly oxygenated atmosphere initiated drastic selections for a variety of biochemical pathways supporting the robust life currently present on the planet. First, we discuss how fermentative glycolysis, a primitive metabolic pathway present at the emergence of life, is instrumental for the rapid growth of cancer, regenerating tissues, immune cells but also bacteria and viruses during infections. The 'Warburg effect', activated via Myc and HIF-1 in response to growth factors and hypoxia, is an essential metabolic and energetic pathway which satisfies nutritional and energetic demands required for rapid genome replication. Second, we present the key role of lactic acid, the end-product of fermentative glycolysis able to move across cell membranes in both directions via monocarboxylate transporting proteins (i.e. MCT1/4) contributing to cell-pH homeostasis but also to the complex immune response via acidosis of the tumour microenvironment. Importantly lactate is recycled in multiple organs as a major metabolic precursor of gluconeogenesis and energy source protecting cells and animals from harsh nutritional or oxygen restrictions. Third, we revisit the Warburg effect via CRISPR-Cas9 disruption of glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI-KO) or lactate dehydrogenases (LDHA/B-DKO) in two aggressive tumours (melanoma B16-F10, human adenocarcinoma LS174T). Full suppression of lactic acid production reduces but does not suppress tumour growth due to reactivation of OXPHOS. In contrast, disruption of the lactic acid transporters MCT1/4 suppressed glycolysis, mTORC1, and tumour growth as a result of intracellular acidosis. Finally, we briefly discuss the current clinical developments of an MCT1 specific drug AZ3965, and the recent progress for a specific in vivo MCT4 inhibitor, two drugs of very high potential for future cancer clinical applications.
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Cassim S, Vučetić M, Ždralević M, Pouyssegur J. Warburg and Beyond: The Power of Mitochondrial Metabolism to Collaborate or Replace Fermentative Glycolysis in Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12051119. [PMID: 32365833 PMCID: PMC7281550 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12051119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A defining hallmark of tumor phenotypes is uncontrolled cell proliferation, while fermentative glycolysis has long been considered as one of the major metabolic pathways that allows energy production and provides intermediates for the anabolic growth of cancer cells. Although such a vision has been crucial for the development of clinical imaging modalities, it has become now evident that in contrast to prior beliefs, mitochondria play a key role in tumorigenesis. Recent findings demonstrated that a full genetic disruption of the Warburg effect of aggressive cancers does not suppress but instead reduces tumor growth. Tumor growth then relies exclusively on functional mitochondria. Besides having fundamental bioenergetic functions, mitochondrial metabolism indeed provides appropriate building blocks for tumor anabolism, controls redox balance, and coordinates cell death. Hence, mitochondria represent promising targets for the development of novel anti-cancer agents. Here, after revisiting the long-standing Warburg effect from a historic and dynamic perspective, we review the role of mitochondria in cancer with particular attention to the cancer cell-intrinsic/extrinsic mechanisms through which mitochondria influence all steps of tumorigenesis, and briefly discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting mitochondrial metabolism for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamir Cassim
- Department of Medical Biology, Centre Scientifique de Monaco, CSM, 98000 Monaco, Monaco;
- Correspondence: (S.C.); (J.P.)
| | - Milica Vučetić
- Department of Medical Biology, Centre Scientifique de Monaco, CSM, 98000 Monaco, Monaco;
| | - Maša Ždralević
- Centre A. Lacassagne, University Côte d’Azur, IRCAN, CNRS, 06189 Nice, France;
| | - Jacques Pouyssegur
- Department of Medical Biology, Centre Scientifique de Monaco, CSM, 98000 Monaco, Monaco;
- Centre A. Lacassagne, University Côte d’Azur, IRCAN, CNRS, 06189 Nice, France;
- Correspondence: (S.C.); (J.P.)
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Ždralević M, Brand A, Di Ianni L, Dettmer K, Reinders J, Singer K, Peter K, Schnell A, Bruss C, Decking SM, Koehl G, Felipe-Abrio B, Durivault J, Bayer P, Evangelista M, O'Brien T, Oefner PJ, Renner K, Pouysségur J, Kreutz M. Double genetic disruption of lactate dehydrogenases A and B is required to ablate the "Warburg effect" restricting tumor growth to oxidative metabolism. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:15947-15961. [PMID: 30158244 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.004180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased glucose consumption distinguishes cancer cells from normal cells and is known as the "Warburg effect" because of increased glycolysis. Lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) is a key glycolytic enzyme, a hallmark of aggressive cancers, and believed to be the major enzyme responsible for pyruvate-to-lactate conversion. To elucidate its role in tumor growth, we disrupted both the LDHA and LDHB genes in two cancer cell lines (human colon adenocarcinoma and murine melanoma cells). Surprisingly, neither LDHA nor LDHB knockout strongly reduced lactate secretion. In contrast, double knockout (LDHA/B-DKO) fully suppressed LDH activity and lactate secretion. Furthermore, under normoxia, LDHA/B-DKO cells survived the genetic block by shifting their metabolism to oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), entailing a 2-fold reduction in proliferation rates in vitro and in vivo compared with their WT counterparts. Under hypoxia (1% oxygen), however, LDHA/B suppression completely abolished in vitro growth, consistent with the reliance on OXPHOS. Interestingly, activation of the respiratory capacity operated by the LDHA/B-DKO genetic block as well as the resilient growth were not consequences of long-term adaptation. They could be reproduced pharmacologically by treating WT cells with an LDHA/B-specific inhibitor (GNE-140). These findings demonstrate that the Warburg effect is not only based on high LDHA expression, as both LDHA and LDHB need to be deleted to suppress fermentative glycolysis. Finally, we demonstrate that the Warburg effect is dispensable even in aggressive tumors and that the metabolic shift to OXPHOS caused by LDHA/B genetic disruptions is responsible for the tumors' escape and growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maša Ždralević
- From the Université Côte d'Azur, IRCAN, CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, 06189 Nice, France
| | - Almut Brand
- From the Université Côte d'Azur, IRCAN, CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, 06189 Nice, France.,the Departments of Internal Medicine III and
| | - Lorenza Di Ianni
- From the Université Côte d'Azur, IRCAN, CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, 06189 Nice, France
| | | | | | | | - Katrin Peter
- the Departments of Internal Medicine III and.,Center for Interventional Immunology, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Gudrun Koehl
- Surgery, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Blanca Felipe-Abrio
- From the Université Côte d'Azur, IRCAN, CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, 06189 Nice, France
| | - Jérôme Durivault
- the Medical Biology Department, Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Monaco MC98000
| | - Pascale Bayer
- the Université Côte d'Azur, University Hospital Pasteur, Clinical Chemistry Laboratory, 06001 Nice, France
| | - Marie Evangelista
- Discovery and Translational Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, California 94080, and
| | - Thomas O'Brien
- Discovery and Translational Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, California 94080, and
| | | | - Kathrin Renner
- the Departments of Internal Medicine III and.,Center for Interventional Immunology, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jacques Pouysségur
- From the Université Côte d'Azur, IRCAN, CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, 06189 Nice, France, .,the Medical Biology Department, Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Monaco MC98000
| | - Marina Kreutz
- the Departments of Internal Medicine III and .,Center for Interventional Immunology, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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Ždralević M, Vučetić M, Daher B, Marchiq I, Parks SK, Pouysségur J. Disrupting the 'Warburg effect' re-routes cancer cells to OXPHOS offering a vulnerability point via 'ferroptosis'-induced cell death. Adv Biol Regul 2018; 68:55-63. [PMID: 29306548 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbior.2017.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Revised: 12/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/25/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of life from extreme hypoxic environments to an oxygen-rich atmosphere has progressively selected for successful metabolic, enzymatic and bioenergetic networks through which a myriad of organisms survive the most extreme environmental conditions. From the two lethal environments anoxia/high O2, cells have developed survival strategies through expression of the transcriptional factors ATF4, HIF1 and NRF2. Cancer cells largely exploit these factors to thrive and resist therapies. In this review, we report and discuss the potential therapeutic benefit of disrupting the major Myc/Hypoxia-induced metabolic pathway, also known as fermentative glycolysis or "Warburg effect", in aggressive cancer cell lines. With three examples of genetic disruption of this pathway: glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI), lactate dehydrogenases (LDHA and B) and lactic acid transporters (MCT1, MCT4), we illuminate how cancer cells exploit metabolic plasticity to survive the metabolic and energetic blockade or arrest their growth. In this context of NRF2 contribution to OXPHOS re-activation we will show and discuss how, by disruption of the cystine transporter xCT (SLC7A11), we can exploit the acute lethal phospholipid peroxidation pathway to induce cancer cell death by 'ferroptosis'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maša Ždralević
- Université Côte d'Azur, Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging (IRCAN), CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, 33 avenue de Valombrose, Nice, France
| | - Milica Vučetić
- Medical Biology Department, Centre Scientifique de Monaco (CSM), Monaco
| | - Boutaina Daher
- Medical Biology Department, Centre Scientifique de Monaco (CSM), Monaco
| | - Ibtissam Marchiq
- Université Côte d'Azur, Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging (IRCAN), CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, 33 avenue de Valombrose, Nice, France
| | - Scott K Parks
- Medical Biology Department, Centre Scientifique de Monaco (CSM), Monaco
| | - Jacques Pouysségur
- Université Côte d'Azur, Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging (IRCAN), CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, 33 avenue de Valombrose, Nice, France; Medical Biology Department, Centre Scientifique de Monaco (CSM), Monaco.
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5
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Ždralević M, Marchiq I, de Padua MMC, Parks SK, Pouysségur J. Metabolic Plasiticy in Cancers-Distinct Role of Glycolytic Enzymes GPI, LDHs or Membrane Transporters MCTs. Front Oncol 2017; 7:313. [PMID: 29326883 PMCID: PMC5742324 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2017.00313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Research on cancer metabolism has recently re-surfaced as a major focal point in cancer field with a reprogrammed metabolism no longer being considered as a mere consequence of oncogenic transformation, but as a hallmark of cancer. Reprogramming metabolic pathways and nutrient sensing is an elaborate way by which cancer cells respond to high bioenergetic and anabolic demands during tumorigenesis. Thus, inhibiting specific metabolic pathways at defined steps should provide potent ways of arresting tumor growth. However, both animal models and clinical observations have revealed that this approach is seriously limited by an extraordinary cellular metabolic plasticity. The classical example of cancer metabolic reprogramming is the preference for aerobic glycolysis, or Warburg effect, where cancers increase their glycolytic flux and produce lactate regardless of the presence of the oxygen. This allows cancer cells to meet the metabolic requirements for high rates of proliferation. Here, we discuss the benefits and limitations of disrupting fermentative glycolysis for impeding tumor growth at three levels of the pathway: (i) an upstream block at the level of the glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI), (ii) a downstream block at the level of lactate dehydrogenases (LDH, isoforms A and B), and (iii) the endpoint block preventing lactic acid export (MCT1/4). Using these examples of genetic disruption targeting glycolysis studied in our lab, we will discuss the responses of different cancer cell lines in terms of metabolic rewiring, growth arrest, and tumor escape and compare it with the broader literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maša Ždralević
- Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging (IRCAN), CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, University Côte d'Azur, Nice, France
| | - Ibtissam Marchiq
- Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging (IRCAN), CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, University Côte d'Azur, Nice, France
| | - Monique M Cunha de Padua
- Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging (IRCAN), CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, University Côte d'Azur, Nice, France
| | - Scott K Parks
- Medical Biology Department, Centre Scientifique de Monaco (CSM), Monaco, Monaco
| | - Jacques Pouysségur
- Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging (IRCAN), CNRS, INSERM, Centre A. Lacassagne, University Côte d'Azur, Nice, France.,Medical Biology Department, Centre Scientifique de Monaco (CSM), Monaco, Monaco
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6
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Duka T, Collins Z, Anderson SM, Raghanti MA, Ely JJ, Hof PR, Wildman DE, Goodman M, Grossman LI, Sherwood CC. Divergent lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme profile in cellular compartments of primate forebrain structures. Mol Cell Neurosci 2017; 82:137-142. [PMID: 28461219 PMCID: PMC5531073 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2017.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The compartmentalization and association of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) with specific cellular structures (e.g., synaptosomal, sarcoplasmic or mitochondrial) may play an important role in brain energy metabolism. Our previous research revealed that LDH in the synaptosomal fraction shifts toward the aerobic isoforms (LDH-B) among the large-brained haplorhine primates compared to strepsirrhines. Here, we further analyzed the subcellular localization of LDH in primate forebrain structures using quantitative Western blotting and ELISA. We show that, in cytosolic and mitochondrial subfractions, LDH-B expression level was relatively elevated and LDH-A declined in haplorhines compared to strepsirrhines. LDH-B expression in mitochondrial fractions of the neocortex was preferentially increased, showing a particularly significant rise in the ratio of LDH-B to LDH-A in chimpanzees and humans. We also found a significant correlation between the protein levels of LDH-B in mitochondrial fractions from haplorhine neocortex and the synaptosomal LDH-B that suggests LDH isoforms shift from a predominance of A-subunits toward B-subunits as part of a system that spatially buffers dynamic energy requirements of brain cells. Our results indicate that there is differential subcellular compartmentalization of LDH isoenzymes that evolved among different primate lineages to meet the energy requirements in neocortical and striatal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetyana Duka
- Department of Anthropology and Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Zachary Collins
- Department of Anthropology and Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Sarah M Anderson
- Department of Anthropology and Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Mary Ann Raghanti
- Department of Anthropology and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242, USA
| | | | - Patrick R Hof
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Derek E Wildman
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology and Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Morris Goodman
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Lawrence I Grossman
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Chet C Sherwood
- Department of Anthropology and Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA.
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Duka T, Anderson SM, Collins Z, Raghanti MA, Ely JJ, Hof PR, Wildman DE, Goodman M, Grossman LI, Sherwood CC. Synaptosomal lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme composition is shifted toward aerobic forms in primate brain evolution. BRAIN, BEHAVIOR AND EVOLUTION 2014; 83:216-30. [PMID: 24686273 PMCID: PMC4096905 DOI: 10.1159/000358581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
With the evolution of a relatively large brain size in haplorhine primates (i.e. tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans), there have been associated changes in the molecular machinery that delivers energy to the neocortex. Here we investigated variation in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) expression and isoenzyme composition of the neocortex and striatum in primates using quantitative Western blotting and isoenzyme analysis of total homogenates and synaptosomal fractions. Analysis of isoform expression revealed that LDH in synaptosomal fractions from both forebrain regions shifted towards a predominance of the heart-type, aerobic isoform LDH-B among haplorhines as compared to strepsirrhines (i.e. lorises and lemurs), while in the total homogenate of the neocortex and striatum there was no significant difference in LDH isoenzyme composition between the primate suborders. The largest increase occurred in synapse-associated LDH-B expression in the neocortex, with an especially remarkable elevation in the ratio of LDH-B/LDH-A in humans. The phylogenetic variation in the ratio of LDH-B/LDH-A was correlated with species-typical brain mass but not the encephalization quotient. A significant LDH-B increase in the subneuronal fraction from haplorhine neocortex and striatum suggests a relatively higher rate of aerobic glycolysis that is linked to synaptosomal mitochondrial metabolism. Our results indicate that there is a differential composition of LDH isoenzymes and metabolism in synaptic terminals that evolved in primates to meet increased energy requirements in association with brain enlargement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetyana Duka
- Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC
| | - Sarah M. Anderson
- Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC
| | - Zachary Collins
- Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC
| | - Mary Ann Raghanti
- Department of Anthropology and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH
| | - John J. Ely
- Alamogordo Primate Facility, Holloman Air Force Base, NM
| | - Patrick R. Hof
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - Derek E. Wildman
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI
| | - Morris Goodman
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI
| | - Lawrence I. Grossman
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI
| | - Chet C. Sherwood
- Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC
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Grossman LI, Schmidt TR, Wildman DE, Goodman M. Molecular evolution of aerobic energy metabolism in primates. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2001; 18:26-36. [PMID: 11161739 DOI: 10.1006/mpev.2000.0890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
As part of our goal to reconstruct human evolution at the DNA level, we have been examining changes in the biochemical machinery for aerobic energy metabolism. We find that protein subunits of two of the electron transfer complexes, complex III and complex IV, and cytochrome c, the protein carrier that connects them, have all undergone a period of rapid protein evolution in the anthropoid lineage that ultimately led to humans. Indeed, subunit IV of cytochrome c oxidase (COX; complex IV) provides one of the best examples of positively selected changes of any protein studied. The rate of subunit IV evolution accelerated in our catarrhine ancestors in the period between 40 to 18 million years ago and then decelerated in the descendant hominid lineages, a pattern of rate changes indicative of positive selection of adaptive changes followed by purifying selection acting against further changes. Besides clear evidence that adaptive evolution occurred for cytochrome c and subunits of complexes III (e.g., cytochrome c(1)) and IV (e.g., COX2 and COX4), modest rate accelerations in the lineage that led to humans are seen for other subunits of both complexes. In addition the contractile muscle-specific isoform of COX subunit VIII became a pseudogene in an anthropoid ancestor of humans but appears to be a functional gene in the nonanthropoid primates. These changes in the aerobic energy complexes coincide with the expansion of the energy-dependent neocortex during the emergence of the higher primates. Discovering the biochemical adaptations suggested by molecular evolutionary analysis will be an exciting challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- L I Grossman
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA.
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Wu W, Schmidt TR, Goodman M, Grossman LI. Molecular evolution of cytochrome c oxidase subunit I in primates: is there coevolution between mitochondrial and nuclear genomes? Mol Phylogenet Evol 2000; 17:294-304. [PMID: 11083942 DOI: 10.1006/mpev.2000.0833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Phylogenetic analyses carried out on cytochrome c oxidase (COX) subunit I mitochondrial genes from 14 primates representing the major branches of the order and four outgroup nonprimate eutherians revealed that transversions and amino acid replacements (i.e., the more slowly occurring sequence changes) contained lower levels of homoplasy and thus provided more accurate information on cladistic relationships than transitions (i.e., the more rapidly occurring sequence changes). Several amino acids, each with a high likelihood of functionality involving the binding of cytochrome c or interaction with COX VIII, have changed in Anthropoidea, the primate suborder grouping New World monkey, Old World monkey, ape, and human lineages. They are conserved in other mammalian lineages and in nonanthropoid primates. Maximum-likelihood ancestral COX I nucleotide sequences were determined utilizing a near most parsimonious branching arrangement for the primate sequences that was consistent with previously hypothesized primate cladistic relationships based on larger and more diverse data sets. Relative rate tests of COX I mitochondrial sequences showed an elevated nonsynonymous (N) substitution rate for anthropoid-nonanthropoid comparisons. This finding for the largest mitochondrial (mt) DNA-encoded subunit is consistent with previous observations of elevated nonsynonymous substitution/synonymous substitution (S) rates in primates for mt-encoded COX II and for the nuclear-encoded COX IV and COX VIIa-H. Other COX-related proteins, including cytochrome c and cytochrome b, also show elevated amino acid replacement rates or N/S during similar time frames, suggesting that this group of interacting genes is likely to have coevolved during primate evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Wu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
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Markert CL, Shaklee JB, Whitt GS. Evolution of a gene. Multiple genes for LDH isozymes provide a model of the evolution of gene structure, function and regulation. Science 1975; 189:102-14. [PMID: 1138367 DOI: 10.1126/science.1138367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 359] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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12
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Anderson JE, Giblett ER. Intraspecific red cell enzyme variation in the pigtailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina). Biochem Genet 1975; 13:189-212. [PMID: 1147887 DOI: 10.1007/bf00486014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The erythrocytes of 350 pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) were examined for electrophoretic variation of hemoglobin and 26 enzymes. Seven enzymes showed variation in more than 1% of individuals: phosphoglucose isomerase, phosphoglucomutase-1, soluble NADP-dependent isocitric dehydrogenase, peptidase A, peptidase C, 2,3-diphosphoglycerate mutase, and acid phosphatase. Variation with lesser frequency was found in soluble glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase, phosphoglycerate kinase, lactic dehydrogenase, and hemoglobin. Only eight samples were tested for esterase D, and one of these had a variant phenotype. Enzymes with no clear variation were adenylate kinase, adenosine deaminase, phosphofructokinase, hexokinase, pyruvate kinase, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, aldolase, phosphoglycerate mutase, phosphopyruvate hydratase (enolase), phosphoglucomutase-3, and superoxide dismutase. There was father-to-son transmission of PGI, PGM-1, peptidase C, 6PGD, 2,3-DPGAM, NADP-ICD, and acid phosphatase variants, suggesting that these loci are autosomal as in man.
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Rainboth WJ, Whitt GS. Analysis of evolutionary relationships among shiners of the subgenus Luxilus (Teleostei, Cypriniformes, Notropis) with the lactate dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase isozyme systems. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. B, COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1974; 49:241-52. [PMID: 4425477 DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(74)90158-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Masters CJ, Holmes RS. Isoenzymes, multiple enzyme forms, and phylogeny. ADVANCES IN COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY 1974; 5:109-95. [PMID: 4214164 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-011505-1.50009-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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15
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Karlsson BW, Larsson GB. Lactic and malic dehydrogenases and their multiple molecular forms in the Mongolian gerbil as compared with the rat, mouse and rabbit. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. B, COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1971; 40:93-108. [PMID: 5141407 DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(71)90065-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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16
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Koen AL, Goodman M. Evidence that genes at two loci code for lactate dehydrogenase subunit B in Nycticebus coucang. Biochem Genet 1969; 3:595-601. [PMID: 5392466 DOI: 10.1007/bf00485481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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