Small-conductance chloride channels activated by calcium on cultured endocrine cells from mammalian pars intermedia

Regulation of TMEM16A chloride channel properties by alternative splicing

Expression of TMEM16A protein is associated with the activity of Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channels. TMEM16A primary transcript undergoes alternative splicing. thus resulting in the generation of multiple isoforms. We have determined the pattern of splicing and assessed the functional properties of the corresponding TMEM16A variants. We found three alternative exons, 6b, 13, and 15, coding for segments of 22, 4, and 26 amino acids, respectively, which are differently spliced in human organs. By patch clamp experiments on transfected cells, we found that skipping of exon 6b changes the Ca(2+) sensitivity by nearly 4-fold, resulting in Cl(-) currents requiring lower Ca(2+) concentrations to be activated. At the membrane potential of 80 mV, the apparent half-effective concentration decreases from 350 to 90 nm when the segment corresponding to exon 6b is excluded. Skipping of exon 13 instead strongly reduces the characteristic time-dependent activation observed for Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channels at positive membrane potentials. This effect was also obtained by deleting only the second pair of amino acids corresponding to exon 13. Alternative splicing appears as an important mechanism to regulate the voltage and Ca(2+) dependence of the TMEM16A-dependent Cl(-) channels in a tissue-specific manner.

Anoctamin/TMEM16 family members are Ca2+-activated Cl- channels

Ca(2+)-activated Cl- channels (CaCCs) perform many important functions in cell physiology including secretion of fluids from acinar cells of secretory glands, amplification of olfactory transduction, regulation of cardiac and neuronal excitability, mediation of the fast block to polyspermy in amphibian oocytes, and regulation of vascular tone. Although a number of proteins have been proposed to be responsible for CaCC currents, the anoctamin family (ANO, also known as TMEM16) exhibits characteristics most similar to those expected for the classical CaCC. Interestingly, this family of proteins has previously attracted the interest of both developmental and cancer biologists. Some members of this family are up-regulated in a number of tumours and functional deficiency in others is linked to developmental defects.

Single Cl- channels activated by Ca2+ in Drosophila S2 cells are mediated by bestrophins

Mutations in human bestrophin-1 (VMD2) are genetically linked to several forms of retinal degeneration but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Bestrophin-1 (hBest1) has been proposed to be a Cl⁻ channel involved in ion and fluid transport by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). To date, however, bestrophin currents have only been described in overexpression systems and not in any native cells. To test whether bestrophins function as Ca²⁺-activated Cl⁻ (CaC) channels physiologically, we used interfering RNA (RNAi) in the Drosophila S2 cell line. S2 cells express four bestrophins (dbest1–4) and have an endogenous CaC current. The CaC current is abolished by several RNAi constructs to dbest1 and dbest2, but not dbest3 or dbest4. The endogenous CaC current was mimicked by expression of dbest1 in HEK cells, and the rectification and relative permeability of the current were altered by replacing F81 with cysteine. Single channel analysis of the S2 bestrophin currents revealed an ∼2-pS single channel with fast gating kinetics and linear current–voltage relationship. A similar channel was observed in CHO cells transfected with dbest1, but no such channel was seen in S2 cells treated with RNAi to dbest1. This provides definitive evidence that bestrophins are components of native CaC channels at the plasma membrane.

Cytosolic Cl- ions in the regulation of secretory and endocytotic activity in melanotrophs from mouse pituitary tissue slices

Cl- ions are known regulators of Ca2+ -dependent secretory activity in many endocrine cells. The suggested mechanisms of Cl- action involve the modulation of GTP-binding proteins, voltage-activated calcium channels or maturation of secretory vesicles. We examined the role of cytosolic Cl- ([Cl-]i) and Cl- currents in the regulation of secretory activity in mouse melanotrophs from fresh pituitary tissue slices by using the whole-cell patch-clamp. We confirmed that elevated [Cl-]i augments Ca2- -dependent exocytosis and showed that Cl- acts on secretory vesicle maturation. The latter process was abolished by a V-type H- -ATPase blocker (bafilomycin), intracellular 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid (DIDS), a Cl- channel blocker, and tolbutamide, a sulphonylurea implicated in secretory vesicle maturation. In a small subset of cells, block of plasmalemmal Cl- current by DIDS reversibly enhanced endocytosis. The direct activation of G-proteins by GTP-gamma-S, a non-hydrolysable GTP analogue, did not restore the impaired secretion observed in low [Cl-]i conditions. The amplitude of voltage-activated calcium currents was unaffected by the [Cl-]i. Furthermore, two Cl- -permeable channels, calcium-activated Cl- channels and GABAA receptors, appeared as major regulators of intracellular Cl- homeostasis. In conclusion, the predominant underlying mechanism of Cl- action is mediated by intracellular Cl- fluxes during vesicle maturation, rather than activation of G-proteins or modulation of voltage-activated Ca2+channels.

Calcium-activated chloride channels

Calcium-activated chloride channels (CaCCs) play important roles in cellular physiology, including epithelial secretion of electrolytes and water, sensory transduction, regulation of neuronal and cardiac excitability, and regulation of vascular tone. This review discusses the physiological roles of these channels, their mechanisms of regulation and activation, and the mechanisms of anion selectivity and conduction. Despite the fact that CaCCs are so broadly expressed in cells and play such important functions, understanding these channels has been limited by the absence of specific blockers and the fact that the molecular identities of CaCCs remains in question. Recent status of the pharmacology and molecular identification of CaCCs is evaluated.

Cell-to-cell communication via nitric oxide modulation of oscillatory Cl(-) currents in rat intact cerebral arterioles

1. Diffusion-mediated changes in ion channel function within blood vessels have not been demonstrated directly in a patch-clamp study. Here, we examined the hypothesis that endothelium-derived diffusible bioactive substances would modify endothelin-1 (ET-1)-evoked membrane currents in smooth muscle cells situated within intact arterioles. 2. In pieces of arterioles dissected from the rat cerebral pial membrane, patch electrodes were placed on single smooth muscle cells identified under the microscope. Under perforated patch-clamp conditions, ET-1 evoked an oscillatory inward current at negative potentials in such cells in the presence of the gap junction disrupter 18alpha-glycyrrhetinic acid. ET-1 also elicited an oscillation superimposed on a membrane depolarization in current-clamp mode. 3. The oscillatory current exhibited an outwardly rectifying current-voltage relationship, a sensitivity to niflumic acid, a requirement for inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3))- and caffeine-sensitive Ca(2+) stores and for external Ca(2+) and a rank order of anion permeabilities characteristic of Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) currents (I(Ca(Cl))). 4. This oscillatory response was inhibited by bradykinin (an effect distinct from the electrical propagation of hyperpolarization) and this effect was attenuated by the NO-synthase inhibitor N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine and by the NO scavenger oxyhaemoglobin but not by the cyclo-oxygenease inhibitor indomethacin. 8-Bromoguanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-Br-cGMP) and nitroprusside closely mimicked the effect of bradykinin. 5. The present patch-clamp study has revealed diffusion-mediated cell-to-cell interaction in an intact blood vessel: bradykinin appears to cause NO to move from endothelium to smooth muscle, there to inhibit an ET-1-evoked oscillatory I(Ca(Cl)) via the NO-cGMP pathway.

Regulation of a human chloride channel. a paradigm for integrating input from calcium, type ii calmodulin-dependent protein kinase, and inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate

We have studied the regulation of Ca(2+)-dependent chloride (Cl(Ca)) channels in a human pancreatoma epithelial cell line (CFPAC-1), which does not express functional cAMP-dependent cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator chloride channels. In cell-free patches from these cells, physiological Ca(2+) concentrations activated a single class of 1-picosiemens Cl(-)-selective channels. The same channels were also stimulated by a purified type II calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII), and in cell-attached patches by purinergic agonists. In whole-cell recordings, both Ca(2+)- and CaMKII-dependent mechanisms contributed to chloride channel stimulation by Ca(2+), but the CaMKII-dependent pathway was selectively inhibited by inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate (Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4)). This inhibitory effect of Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4) on Cl(Ca) channel stimulation by CaMKII was reduced by raising [Ca(2+)] and prevented by inhibition of protein phosphatase activity with 100 nm okadaic acid. These data provide a new context for understanding the physiological relevance of Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4) in the longer term regulation of Ca(2+)-dependent Cl(-) fluxes in epithelial cells.

Neuronal Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels--homing in on an elusive channel species

Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels control electrical excitability in various peripheral and central populations of neurons. Ca2+ influx through voltage-gated or ligand-operated channels, as well as Ca2+ release from intracellular stores, have been shown to induce substantial Cl- conductances that determine the response to synaptic input, spike rate, and the receptor current of various kinds of neurons. In some neurons, Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels are localized in the dendritic membrane, and their contribution to signal processing depends on the local Cl- equilibrium potential which may differ considerably from those at the membranes of somata and axons. In olfactory sensory neurons, the channels are expressed in ciliary processes of dendritic endings where they serve to amplify the odor-induced receptor current. Recent biophysical studies of signal transduction in olfactory sensory neurons have yielded some insight into the functional properties of Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels expressed in the chemosensory membrane of these cells. Ion selectivity, channel conductance, and Ca2+ sensitivity have been investigated, and the role of the channels in the generation of receptor currents is well understood. However, further investigation of neuronal Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels will require information about the molecular structure of the channel protein, the regulation of channel activity by cellular signaling pathways, as well as the distribution of channels in different compartments of the neuron. To understand the physiological role of these channels it is also important to know the Cl- equilibrium potential in cells or in distinct cell compartments that express Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels. The state of knowledge about most of these aspects is considerably more advanced in non-neuronal cells, in particular in epithelia and smooth muscle. This review, therefore, collects results both from neuronal and from non-neuronal cells with the intent of facilitating research into Ca2+ -activated Cl- channels and their physiological functions in neurons.

Anion transport in heart

Anion transport proteins in mammalian cells participate in a wide variety of cell and intracellular organelle functions, including regulation of electrical activity, pH, volume, and the transport of osmolites and metabolites, and may even play a role in the control of immunological responses, cell migration, cell proliferation, and differentiation. Although significant progress over the past decade has been achieved in understanding electrogenic and electroneutral anion transport proteins in sarcolemmal and intracellular membranes, information on the molecular nature and physiological significance of many of these proteins, especially in the heart, is incomplete. Functional and molecular studies presently suggest that four primary types of sarcolemmal anion channels are expressed in cardiac cells: channels regulated by protein kinase A (PKA), protein kinase C, and purinergic receptors (I(Cl.PKA)); channels regulated by changes in cell volume (I(Cl.vol)); channels activated by intracellular Ca(2+) (I(Cl.Ca)); and inwardly rectifying anion channels (I(Cl.ir)). In most animal species, I(Cl.PKA) is due to expression of a cardiac isoform of the epithelial cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl(-) channel. New molecular candidates responsible for I(Cl.vol), I(Cl.Ca), and I(Cl.ir) (ClC-3, CLCA1, and ClC-2, respectively) have recently been identified and are presently being evaluated. Two isoforms of the band 3 anion exchange protein, originally characterized in erythrocytes, are responsible for Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange, and at least two members of a large vertebrate family of electroneutral cotransporters (ENCC1 and ENCC3) are responsible for Na(+)-dependent Cl(-) cotransport in heart. A 223-amino acid protein in the outer mitochondrial membrane of most eukaryotic cells comprises a voltage-dependent anion channel. The molecular entities responsible for other types of electroneutral anion exchange or Cl(-) conductances in intracellular membranes of the sarcoplasmic reticulum or nucleus are unknown. Evidence of cardiac expression of up to five additional members of the ClC gene family suggest a rich new variety of molecular candidates that may underlie existing or novel Cl(-) channel subtypes in sarcolemmal and intracellular membranes. The application of modern molecular biological and genetic approaches to the study of anion transport proteins during the next decade holds exciting promise for eventually revealing the actual physiological, pathophysiological, and clinical significance of these unique transport processes in cardiac and other mammalian cells.

Bimodal control of a Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channel by different Ca(2+) signals

Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channels play important roles in a variety of physiological processes, including epithelial secretion, maintenance of smooth muscle tone, and repolarization of the cardiac action potential. It remains unclear, however, exactly how these channels are controlled by Ca(2+) and voltage. Excised inside-out patches containing many Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channels from Xenopus oocytes were used to study channel regulation. The currents were mediated by a single type of Cl(-) channel that exhibited an anionic selectivity of I(-) > Br(-) > Cl(-) (3.6:1.9:1.0), irrespective of the direction of the current flow or [Ca(2+)]. However, depending on the amplitude of the Ca(2+) signal, this channel exhibited qualitatively different behaviors. At [Ca(2+)] < 1 microM, the currents activated slowly upon depolarization and deactivated upon hyperpolarization and the steady state current-voltage relationship was strongly outwardly rectifying. At higher [Ca(2+)], the currents did not rectify and were time independent. This difference in behavior at different [Ca(2+)] was explained by an apparent voltage-dependent Ca(2+) sensitivity of the channel. At +120 mV, the EC(50) for channel activation by Ca(2+) was approximately fourfold less than at -120 mV (0.9 vs. 4 microM). Thus, at [Ca(2+)] < 1 microM, inward current was smaller than outward current and the currents were time dependent as a consequence of voltage-dependent changes in Ca(2+) binding. The voltage-dependent Ca(2+) sensitivity was explained by a kinetic gating scheme in which channel activation was Ca(2+) dependent and channel closing was voltage sensitive. This scheme was supported by the observation that deactivation time constants of currents produced by rapid Ca(2+) concentration jumps were voltage sensitive, but that the activation time constants were Ca(2+) sensitive. The deactivation time constants increased linearly with the log of membrane potential. The qualitatively different behaviors of this channel in response to different Ca(2+) concentrations adds a new dimension to Ca(2+) signaling: the same channel can mediate either excitatory or inhibitory responses, depending on the amplitude of the cellular Ca(2+) signal.

Unitary Cl- channels activated by cytoplasmic Ca2+ in canine ventricular myocytes

Recent whole-cell studies have shown that Ca(2+)-activated Cl- currents contribute to the Ca(2+)-dependent 4-aminopyridine-insensitive component of the transient outward current and to the arrhythmogenic transient inward current in rabbit and canine cardiac cells. These Cl(-)-sensitive currents are activated by Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and are inhibited by anion transport blockers; however, the unitary single channels responsible have yet to be identified. We used inside-out patches from canine ventricular myocytes and conditions under which the only likely permeant ion is Cl- to identify 4-aminopyridine-resistant unitary Ca(2+)-activated Cl- channels, Ca2+ applied to the cytoplasmic surface of membrane patches activated small-conductance (1.0 to 1.3 pS) channels. These channels were Cl- selective, with rectification properties that could be described by the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz current equation. Channel activity exhibited time independence when cytoplasmic Ca2+ was held constant and was blocked by the anion transport blockers, DIDS and niflumic acid. Ca2+ (ranging from pCa > or = 6 to pCa 3) applied to the cytoplasmic surface of inside-out patches increased, in a dose-dependent manner, NPo, where N is the number of channels opened and Po is open probability. At negative membrane potentials (-60 to -130 mV), an estimate of the dependence of NPo on cytoplasmic Ca2+ yielded an apparent Kd of 150.2 mumol/L. At pCa 3, an average channel density of approximately equal to 3 microns-2 was estimated. Calculations based on these estimates of cytoplasmic Ca2+ sensitivity and channel current amplitude and density suggest that these small-conductance Cl- channels contribute significant whole-cell membrane current in response to changes in intracellular Ca2+ within the physiological range. We suggest that these small-conductance Ca(2+)-activated Cl- channels underlie the transient Ca(2+)-activated 4-aminopyridine-insensitive current, which contributes to phase-1 repolarization, and under conditions of Ca2+ overload, these channels may generate transient inward currents, contributing to the development of triggered cardiac arrhythmias.

A mini Cl- channel sensitive to external pH in the basolateral membrane of guinea-pig parietal cells

1. Voltage-independent whole-cell Cl- currents were recorded from both single, isolated parietal cells and parietal cells within gastric glands obtained from the fundus of guinea-pig stomach. 2. The Cl- currents were rapidly suppressed by a Cl- channel blocker, NPPB (5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)-benzoate), added to the (basolateral) bathing solution in a concentration-dependent manner with a half-maximal inhibition concentration of 12 microM. 3. The selectivity sequence among anions was I- > Br- > Cl- > F-, corresponding to Eisenman's sequence I. 4. The Cl- currents were independent of cytosolic Ca2+, cyclic AMP, cyclic GMP, GTP-gamma-S and cell volume, and were not affected by application of acid secretagogues, omeprazol, arachidonic acid or prostaglandin E2. 5. Reduction of pH in the (basolateral) bathing solution immediately inhibited the Cl- current with a pK (-log of KD) of 6.3, whereas changes in intracellular pH had no effect. 6. The single-channel conductance was estimated to be 0.46-0.6 pS by variance noise analysis during inhibition of whole-cell Cl- currents by NPPB or acidic pH. 7. It is concluded that pH-sensitive 'mini' Cl- channels, with a sub-picosiemens unitary conductance, exist in the basolateral membrane of guinea-pig parietal cells.

Aspects of calcium-activated chloride currents: a neuronal perspective

Ca(2+)-activated Cl- channels are expressed in a variety of cell types, including central and peripheral neurones. These channels are activated by a rise in intracellular Ca2+ close to the cell membrane. This can be evoked by cellular events such as Ca2+ entry through voltage- and ligandgated channels or release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. Additionally, these Ca(2+)-activated Cl currents (ICl(Ca)) can be activated by raising intracellular Ca2+ through artificial experimental procedures such as intracellular photorelease of Ca2+ from "caged" photolabile compounds (e.g. DM-nitrophen) or by treating cells with Ca2+ ionophores. The potential changes that result from activation of Ca(2+)-activated Cl- channels are dependent on resting membrane potential and the equilibrium potential for Cl-. Ca2+ entry during a single action potential is sufficient to produce substantial after potentials, suggesting that the activity of these Cl- channels can have profound effects on cell excitability. The whole cell ICl(Ca) can be identified by sensitivity to increased Ca2+ buffering capacity of the cell, anion substitution studies and reversal potential measurements, as well as by the actions of Cl- channel blockers. In cultured sensory neurones, there is evidence that the ICl(Ca) deactivates as Ca2+ is buffered or removed from the intracellular environment. To date, there is no evidence in mammalian neurones to suggest these Ca(2+)-sensitive Cl- channels undergo a process of inactivation. Therefore, ICl(Ca) can be used as a physiological index of intracellular Ca2+ close to the cell membrane. The ICl(Ca) has been shown to be activated or prolonged as a result of metabolic stress, as well as by drugs that disturb intracellular Ca2+ homeostatic mechanisms or release Ca2+ from intracellular stores. In addition to sensitivity to classic Cl- channel blockers such as niflumic acid, derivatives of stilbene (4,4'diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid, 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid) and benzoic acid (5-nitro 2-(3-phenylpropylamino) benzoic acid), ICl(Ca) are also sensitive to polyamine spider toxins and some of their analogues, particularly those containing the amino acid residue arginine. The physiological role of Ca(2+)-activated Cl- channels in neurones remains to be fully determined. The wide distribution of these channels in the nervous system, and their capacity to underlie a variety of events such as sustained or transient depolarization or hyperpolarizations in response to changes in intracellular Ca2+ and variations in intracellular Cl- concentration, suggest the roles may be subtle, but important.

Regulation of mesangial cell ion channels by insulin and angiotensin II. Possible role in diabetic glomerular hyperfiltration

We used patch clamp methodology to investigate how glomerular mesangial cells (GMC) depolarize, thus stimulating voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels and GMC contraction. In rat GMC cultures grown in 100 mU/ml insulin, 12% of cell-attached patches contained a Ca(2+)-dependent, 4-picosiemens Cl- channel. Basal NPo (number of channels times open probability) was < 0.1 at resting membrane potential. Acute application of 1-100 nM angiotensin II (AII) or 0.25 microM thapsigargin (to release [Ca2+]i stores) increased NPo. In GMC grown without insulin, Cl- channels were rare (4%) and unresponsive to AII or thapsigargin in cell-attached patches, and less sensitive to [Ca2+]i in excised patches. GMC also contained 27-pS nonselective cation channels (NSCC) stimulated by AII, thapsigargin, or [Ca2+]i, but again only when insulin was present. In GMC grown without insulin, 15 min of insulin exposure increased NPo (insulin > or = 100 microU/ml) and restored AII and [Ca2+]i responsiveness (insulin > or = 1 microU/ml) to both Cl- and NSCC. GMC AII receptor binding studies showed a Bmax (binding sites) of 2.44 +/- 0.58 fmol/mg protein and a Kd (binding dissociation constant) of 3.02 +/- 2.01 nM in the absence of insulin. Bmax increased by 86% and Kd was unchanged after chronic (days) insulin exposure. In contrast, neither Kd nor Bmax was significantly affected by acute (15-min) exposure. Therefore, we concluded that: (a) rat GMC cultures contain Ca(2+)-dependent Cl- and NSCC, both stimulated by AII. (b) Cl- efflux and cation influx, respectively, would promote GMC depolarization, leading to voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel activation and GMC contraction. (c) Responsiveness of Cl- and NSCC to AII is dependent on insulin exposure; AII receptor density increases with chronic, but not acute insulin, and channel sensitivity to [Ca2+]i increases with both acute and chronic insulin. (d) Decreased GMC contractility may contribute to the glomerular hyperfiltration seen in insulinopenic or insulin-resistant diabetic patients.

Properties of spontaneous inward currents in rabbit pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells

Spontaneous inward and outward currents were studied with perforated patch recording in freshly dispersed rabbit pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells. With physiological potassium concentrations, spontaneous outward and inward currents were recorded at negative membrane potentials. Ion substitution experiments revealed that the outward and inward currents were respectively potassium and chloride conductance increases. Both conductances were abolished by bath application of caffeine (2-10 mM), which releases calcium from internal stores. The rise time and half-decay time of spontaneous potassium currents were both about 25 ms. The spontaneous chloride current has a rise time of 30 ms and decayed exponentially with a time constant (tau) of 70 ms at -50 mV. The tau value was increased by depolarization and increased e-fold for a change of 99 mV in membrane potential. In every cell examined when the spontaneous currents occurred as biphasic events, typically between -20 mV and -40 mV, outward currents preceded inward currents in over 90% of these events whereas the inward current always preceded the outward current in caffeine- and noradrenaline-evoked responses. An explanation for these data is that there may be localization of some chloride channels with respect to the caffeine-sensitive calcium store.

Endothelin and vasopressin activate low conductance chloride channels in aortic smooth muscle cells

The non-contractile aortic smooth muscle cell line A7r5 was used to study the membrane events involved in the effect of vasoconstrictor peptides. Whole-cell voltage-clamp and membrane potential recording techniques were used to demonstrate the contribution of an increased Cl- conductance to the late depolarization induced by endothelin-1 and vasopressin. During cell-attached patch recording with N-methyl-D-glucamine in the pipette, bath application of endothelin or vasopressin induced single-channel inward currents in the following minutes. The current/potential (I/V) curve of the most frequently observed channel type--a small conductance Cl- (SCl) channel--reversed near the cell membrane potential and showed a single-channel conductance of 1.8 pS for inward currents. After patch excision in an extracellular solution containing CaCl2 (2 mM), the frequency of SCl channel openings increased. Patch excision in the absence of peptide stimulation also produced this channel activity. Replacement of CaCl2 by a Ca2+ chelator on the intracellular face of a patch reversibly inhibited the channel activity, indicating that these SCl channels are Ca(2+)-activated Cl- channels. The single-channel I/V characteristic showed outward rectification above +50 mV. An analysis of the gating kinetics of the SCl channel is given. Another channel type was recorded less frequently after peptide stimulation. It had a lower conductance (1.0-1.3 pS) and slower kinetics and was designated a very small conductance Cl- channel. It is concluded that activation of two types of Cl- channels (at least one of which is Ca2+ dependent) is involved in the late depolarization produced by vasoconstrictor peptides in vascular smooth muscle cells of the aortic cell line A7r5.

Intracellular calcium ions activate a low-conductance chloride channel in smooth-muscle cells isolated from human mesenteric artery

Calcium-activated chloride currents were studied by the patch-clamp technique in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) isolated from human mesenteric arteries. Bath application of 20 mM caffeine caused the cell membrane to depolarize by a calcium-activated inward current that peaked to -654 +/- 230 pA (holding potential -50 mV). Cell-attached, at the same time inwardly directed single-channel currents were detected with an amplitude of -0.22 pA. In open-cell-attached patches channel activity was triggered by elevating [Ca2+]i to 10 microM. At -60 mV the mean amplitude of the current was -0.24 pA and the mean open time of the channels was 28 ms. Plotting the amplitude of the current versus the test potential yielded a single-channel conductance of 2.8 +/- 0.5 pS. The currents disappeared when [Cl-] was reduced from 150 mM to 5 mM at the cytosolic side of the inside-out patch at a holding potential of -60 mV (calculated reversal potential -58 mV) suggesting that the calcium-activated current was a chloride current. This suggests that, in human mesenteric VSMC, elevation of [Ca2+]i activates a low-conductance chloride channel, which may mediate the agonist-induced depolarization of the cell membrane.

Volume-regulatory Cl- channel currents in cultured human epithelial cells

1. During osmotic swelling, cultured human small intestinal epithelial cells (Intestine 407) exhibited activation of large Cl- currents under the patch-clamp whole-cell configuration. The volume-sensitive Cl- conductance was independent of intracellular Ca2+ and cyclic AMP. 2. The anion permeability sequence of the current was SCN- > I- > Br- > Cl- > F- > gluconate-, corresponding to Eisenman's sequence I. 3. Cl- currents were instantaneously activated by command pulses in a range of -120 to +45 mV. At potentials more positive than +50 mV the current showed a time-dependent inactivation. This inactivation was accelerated by increased depolarization. The instantaneous current-voltage relationship rectified in the outward direction. 4. A stilbene-derivative Cl- channel blocker, 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanostilbene (SITS), inhibited the Cl- current at micromolar concentrations. SITS facilitated inactivation at positive potentials. Outward currents were more prominently suppressed by SITS than inward currents. The concentrations required for 50% inhibition (IC50) of outward and inward currents were 1.5 and 6 microM, respectively. The outward and inward currents were equally inhibited by a carboxylate analogue Cl- channel blocker, 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)-benzoate (NPPB) or diphenylamine-2-carboxylate (DPC) at higher doses (IC50 = 25 for NPPB or 350 microM for DPC). Inactivation kinetics at large depolarizations was not affected by NPPB or DPC. 5. The Cl- current was blocked by an unsaturated fatty acid, arachidonic acid (IC50 = 8 microM). Arachidonic acid was still effective in the presence of inhibitors of lipoxygenase (nordihydroguaiaretic acid, 10 microM), cyclo-oxygenase (indomethacin, 10 microM) and protein kinase C (polymyxin B, 30 microM). The Cl- current was also sensitive to another cis unsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid, which is not a substrate for oxygenases. A trans isomer of oleate, elaidic acid, and a saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid, were ineffective. 6. Single Intestine 407 cells exposed to a hypotonic solution showed a regulatory volume decrease after initial osmotic swelling. The volume regulation was abolished by SITS, NPPB, arachidonate and oleate, but not by elaidate and palmitate. 7. It is concluded that outwardly rectifying Cl- channels, which are sensitive to arachidonic acid, are activated upon osmotic swelling and involved in the subsequent cell volume regulation.

Calcium-activated currents in cultured neurones from rat dorsal root ganglia

1. Voltage-activated Ca2+ currents and caffeine (1 to 10 mM) were used to increase intracellular Ca2+ in rat cultured dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurones. Elevation of intracellular Ca2+ resulted in activation of inward currents which were attenuated by increasing the Ca2+ buffering capacity of cells by raising the concentration of EGTA in the patch solution to 10 mM. Low and high voltage-activated Ca2+ currents gave rise to Cl- tail currents in cells loaded with CsCl patch solution. Outward Ca2+ channel currents activated at very depolarized potentials (Vc + 60 mV to + 100 mV) also activated Cl- tail currents, which were enhanced when extracellular Ca2+ was elevated from 2 mM to 4 mM. 2. The Ca(2+)-activated Cl- tail currents were identified by estimation of tail current reversal potential by use of a double pulse protocol and by sensitivity to the Cl- channel blocker 5-nitro 2-(3-phenyl-propylamino) benzoic acid (NPPB) applied at a concentration of 10 microM. 3. Cells loaded with Cs acetate patch solution and bathed in medium containing 4 mM Ca2+ also had prolonged Ca(2+)-dependent tail currents, however these smaller tail currents were insensitive to NPPB. Release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores by caffeine gave rise to sustained inward currents in cells loaded with Cs acetate. Both Ca(2+)-activated tail currents and caffeine-induced inward currents recorded from cells loaded with Cs acetate were attenuated by Tris based recording media, and had reversal potentials positive to 0 mV suggesting activity of Ca(2+)-activated cation channels.4. Our data may reflect (a) different degrees of association between Ca2+-activated channels with voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, (b) distinct relationships between channels and intracellular Ca2" stores and Ca2+ homeostatic mechanisms, (c) regulation of Ca2+-activated channels by second messengers, and (d) varying channel sensitivity to Ca2 , in the cell body of DRG neurones.

Properties of the calcium-activated chloride current in heart

We used the whole cell patch clamp technique to study transient outward currents of single rabbit atrial cells. A large transient current, IA, was blocked by 4-aminopyridine (4AP) and/or by depolarized holding potentials. After block of IA, a smaller transient current remained. It was completely blocked by nisoldipine, cadmium, ryanodine, or caffeine, which indicates that all of the 4AP-resistant current is activated by the calcium transient that causes contraction. Neither calcium-activated potassium current nor calcium-activated nonspecific cation current appeared to contribute to the 4AP-resistant transient current. The transient current disappeared when ECl was made equal to the pulse potential; it was present in potassium-free internal and external solutions. It was blocked by the anion transport blockers SITS and DIDS, and the reversal potential of instantaneous current-voltage relations varied with extracellular chloride as predicted for a chloride-selective conductance. We concluded that the 4AP-resistant transient outward current of atrial cells is produced by a calcium-activated chloride current like the current ICl(Ca) of ventricular cells (1991. Circulation Research. 68:424-437). ICl(Ca) in atrial cells demonstrated outward rectification, even when intracellular chloride concentration was higher than extracellular. When ICa was inactivated or allowed to recover from inactivation, amplitudes of ICl(Ca) and ICa were closely correlated. The results were consistent with the view that ICl(Ca) does not undergo independent inactivation. Tentatively, we propose that ICl(Ca) is transient because it is activated by an intracellular calcium transient. Lowering extracellular sodium increased the peak outward transient current. The current was insensitive to the choice of sodium substitute. Because a recently identified time-independent, adrenergically activated chloride current in heart is reduced in low sodium, these data suggest that the two chloride currents are produced by different populations of channels.

Intracellular ramification of endothelin signal

Effects of porcine 1-21 endothelin (ET-1) on [Ca2+]i, [Na+]i, and [Cl-]i and on membrane potential were studied in individual mesangial (MC) and vascular smooth muscle (VSMC) cells using microspectrofluorimetry of fura-2, SBFI, SPQ, and bis-oxonol, respectively. ET-1 increased [Ca2+]i by fivefold, showing an immediate and a sustained phase of response. Ca(2+)-free medium and nifedipine pretreatment significantly curtailed the sustained phase of response to ET-1. These findings were confirmed in studies of vascular ring preparations, demonstrating that Ca2+ influx may account for at least 50% of contraction. ET-1 caused immediate and sustained depolarization of MC and VSMC. This could not be attributed to Na+ influx, since fluorescence of SBFI was not affected by ET-1 and Na(+)-free medium did not abolish the ET-1-induced membrane depolarization. Studies of SPQ fluorescence changes induced by ET-1 revealed an increase in fluorescence intensity consistent with the decrease in [Cl-]i. A Cl- channel blocker, IAA-94, abolished changes in SPQ fluorescence and curtailed sustained phases of membrane depolarization and [Ca2+]i elevation in response to ET-1, but did not affect KCl-induced [Ca2+]i transients. IAA-94 also attenuated the ET-1-induced contraction of aortic rings. Microinjection of either calcium gluconate or inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) in SPQ-loaded cells resulted in an increase in fluorescence mimicking the effect of ET-1. These changes were blunted by pretreatment of cells with BAPTA and incubation in Ca(2+)-free medium. When IP3 was microinjected into fura-2-loaded MC, this resulted in immediate and sustained elevation of [Ca2+]i. In conclusion, generation of IP3 results in mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ stores and activation of Cl- channels. Ensuing Cl- efflux causes membrane depolarization and, in turn, activation of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, resulting in sustained elevation of [Ca2+]i which is indispensable for the full-scale contraction produced by ET-1.

Potassium and chloride conductances in rat Leydig cells: effects of gonadotrophins and cyclic adenosine monophosphate

1. The effects of gonadotrophins (luteinizing hormone and human chorionic gonadotrophin) and cyclic AMP on ionic conductances were investigated using the tight-seal whole-cell recording technique in Leydig cells freshly isolated from nature rat testis by enzymatic treatment. 2. In resting cells, the predominant ionic conductance is a voltage-dependent K+ conductance resembling the delayed rectifier K+ conductance of T-lymphocytes. This conductance is characterized by: (1) a time-dependent inactivation for potentials more positive than +20 mV, (2) a reversal potential near -65 mV, (3) a sensitivity to intracellular Cs+, and (4) a sensitivity to extracellular TEA and 4-aminopyridine. 3. A Cl- conductance is also present resembling the Cl- background conductance in squid axons and heart cells. In resting cells, this conductance contributes only a small component of the total outward current obtained with depolarizing pulses. 4. Gonadotrophins (human chorionic gonadotrophin, porcine luteinizing hormone and ovine luteinizing hormone) have little effect on the K+ conductance. They transiently increase a Cl- conductance after a delay of up to 30 s. This response does not occur if the hormones are applied late in the whole-cell recording. Gonadoliberine (GnRH) does not affect the Cl- or K+ conductance. 5. Internal cyclic AMP (100 microM) mimics all these effects while internal application of a GTP-ATP mixture induces a similar response, which is, however, sustained rather than transient. 6. The Cl- conductance was studied quantitatively with a GTP-ATP internal solution. This conductance is activated by depolarizing voltage steps to test potentials of -40 mV or more. Under these conditions, the instantaneous current observed as soon as the depolarizing pulse is applied displays outward rectification and reverses near ECl. During the pulses, a strong inactivation is observed for potentials greater than +40 mV. This conductance is independent of external and internal calcium. 7. It is concluded that the gonadotrophins act through a cyclic AMP-dependent process to activate a Cl- conductance. This conductance is different to the hyperpolarization-activated Cl- conductance and the calcium-activated Cl-conductance also present in the membrane of resting cells.

Inactivation of calcium-activated chloride conductance in Xenopus oocytes: roles of calcium and protein kinase C

Inactivation of Ca2(+)-induced Cl- currents was studied in Xenopus oocytes using the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique. In oocytes permeabilized to Ca2+ by treatment with the ionophore A23187, Ca2+ influx caused by the addition of 2.5-5 mM Ca2+ to the extracellular solution elicited Cl- currents consisting of two components: a fast, transient one (Ifast) and a slow one (Islow). In response to a subsequent application of the same dose of Ca2+, Ifast and Islow were reduced (inactivation phenomenon). The inactivation did not depend on the direction of current flow, but did depend on the duration of the first exposure to Ca2+. The extent of inactivation of Ifast was more significant than that to Islow. Both Ifast and Islow fully recovered from inactivation in less than 30 min. Intracellular injections of 100-400 pmol CaCl2 evoked large inward currents but did not reduce the amplitude of currents evoked by Ca2+ influx. The activator of protein kinase C, beta-phorbol dibutyrate, caused full inhibition of Ifast without any change in Islow. H-7 (1,5-isoquinolinesulfonyl-1,2 methylpiperazine), an inhibitor of protein kinases, strongly reduced the extent of inactivation. Our results suggest that elevation of intracellular Ca2+ by Ca2+ influx through the plasma membrane causes inactivation of the Ca2(+)-dependent Cl- conductance via activation of a Ca2(+)-dependent protein kinase, possibly protein kinase C, whereas Ca2+ arriving at the membrane from inside the cell does not initiate the processes leading to inactivation.

Short- and long-term desensitization of serotonergic response in Xenopus oocytes injected with brain RNA: roles for inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and protein kinase C

In Xenopus oocytes injected with rat brain RNA, serotonin (5HT) and acetylcholine (ACh) evoke membrane responses through a common biochemical cascade that includes activation of phospholipase C, production of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins1,4,5-P3), release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores, and opening of Ca-dependent Cl- channels. The response is a Cl- current composed of a transient component (5HT1 or ACh1) and a slow, long-lasting component (5HT2 or ACh2). Here we show that only the fast, but not the slow, component of the response is subject to desensitization that follows a previous application of the transmitter. The recovery of 5HT1 from desensitization is biphasic, suggesting the existence of two types of desensitization: short-term desensitization (STD), which lasts for less than 0.5 h; and long-term desensitization (LTD) lasting for up to 4 h. The desensitization between 5HT and ACh is heterologous and long-lasting. We searched for (a) the molecular target and (b) the cause of desensitization. (a) Pre-exposure to 5HT does not reduce the response evoked by intracellular injection of Ca2+ and by Ca2+ influx. Cl- current evoked by intracellular injection of Ins1,4,5-P3 was reduced shortly after application of 5HT, but fully recovered 30 min later. Thus, the Cl- channel is not a target for desensitization. Neither Ins1,4,5-P3 receptor nor the Ca2+ store is a target of LTD but they may be the targets of STD. (b) Ca2+ injection did not inhibit the 5HT response, suggesting that Ca2+ is not a sole cause of STD or LTD.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Large unit conductance voltage chloride channels are expressed in mouse neural crest cells and embryonic dorsal root ganglion cells

The early expression of voltage-activated chloride channels of large unitary conductance (450 pS in symmetrical 140 mM KCl) was demonstrated using patch-clamp techniques in two preparations: (i) neural crest cells isolated from 9-day-old (E9) mouse embryos and (ii) acutely isolated dorsal root ganglion cells isolated from E12 mouse embryos. Properties of these ionic channels have been analyzed using single channel recordings and the group mean of these single channels.

Small conductance chloride channels in the apical membrane of thyroid cells

A small conductance chloride channel has been identified on the apical membrane of porcine thyroid cells using the patch-clamp technique. In cell attached membrane patches with NaCl in the pipette, the single channel conductance is 5.5 pS. The channel is highly selective for chloride over gluconate and iodide, and is impermeable to Na+, K+ and tetraethylammonium ions. The open state probability of the channel is not affected by voltage. The channel activity disappears after excision of the patch. The Cl- channel blocker 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)-benzoate (NPPB) did not affect the activity of the thyroid Cl- channels. Treatment of thyroid cells with 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)adenosine-3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-chloro-cAMP) (0.5 mM) prior to giga-seal formation increased Cl- channel activity in the apical membrane of thyroid cells.

The physiological role of calcium-dependent channels

Calcium (Ca2+)-dependent channels may be classified in three broad categories, which are, respectively, selective for potassium ions, for chloride ions, and for monovalent cations. The usual action of Ca2+ is to increase the probability of opening of the channels, but examples of the reverse, Ca2+-induced inhibition of ion channels, have recently been found. Ca2+-dependent channels help to shape the action potentials of excitable cells as well as the synaptic currents of muscular and neuronal preparations. They are involved in several aspects of electrolyte transport including regulation of osmolarity in animal cells and of turgor in plant cells, electrolyte secretion in exocrine glands, fluid absorption and secretion in epithelial tissues.

Transient expression of a Ca2+-activated Cl- current during development of quail sensory neurons

The expression of a calcium-activated chloride current (ICl(Ca)) was studied during the development of the sensory neurons of quail trigeminal ganglia. This current is expressed in 20% of the neurons by the 5th day of embryonic development; it can be found in nearly all neurons by the 7th day and subsequently disappears in half of them. Similar results were obtained with dorsal root ganglion neurons. The disappearance of ICl(Ca) in part of the sensory neurons during development is not due to a selective death of the neurons possessing this current and our results suggest that it is mediated by an interaction of the sensory neurons with their target tissue.