Potassium induced changes in cell volume of gallbladder epithelium

Role of cell volume in K+-induced Ca2+ signaling by rat adrenal glomerulosa cells

The involvement of cell volume in the K+-evoked Ca2+ signaling was studied in cultured rat glomerulosa cells. Previously we reported that hyposmosis (250 mOsm) increased the amplitude of T-type Ca2+ current and, accordingly, enhanced the Ca2+ response of cultured rat glomerulosa cells to K+. In the present study we found that this enhancement is not influenced by the cytoskeleton-disrupting drugs cytochalasin-D (20 microM) and colchicine (100 microM). Elevation of extracellular potassium concentration ([K+]e) from 3.6 to 4.6-8.6 mM induced cell swelling, which had slower kinetics than the Ca2+ signal. Cytoplasmic Ca2+ signal measured in single glomerulosa cells in response to stimulation with 5 mm K+ for 2 min showed two phases: after a rapid rise reaching a plateau within 20-30 sec, [Ca2+]c increased further slowly by approximately one third. When 5 mM K+ was coapplied with elevation of extracellular osmolarity from 290 to 320 mOsm, the second phase was prevented. These results indicate that cell swelling evoked by physiological elevation of [K+]e may contribute to the generation of sustained Ca2+ signals by enhancing voltage-activated Ca2+ influx.

Functional significance of cell volume regulatory mechanisms

To survive, cells have to avoid excessive alterations of cell volume that jeopardize structural integrity and constancy of intracellular milieu. The function of cellular proteins seems specifically sensitive to dilution and concentration, determining the extent of macromolecular crowding. Even at constant extracellular osmolarity, volume constancy of any mammalian cell is permanently challenged by transport of osmotically active substances across the cell membrane and formation or disappearance of cellular osmolarity by metabolism. Thus cell volume constancy requires the continued operation of cell volume regulatory mechanisms, including ion transport across the cell membrane as well as accumulation or disposal of organic osmolytes and metabolites. The various cell volume regulatory mechanisms are triggered by a multitude of intracellular signaling events including alterations of cell membrane potential and of intracellular ion composition, various second messenger cascades, phosphorylation of diverse target proteins, and altered gene expression. Hormones and mediators have been shown to exploit the volume regulatory machinery to exert their effects. Thus cell volume may be considered a second message in the transmission of hormonal signals. Accordingly, alterations of cell volume and volume regulatory mechanisms participate in a wide variety of cellular functions including epithelial transport, metabolism, excitation, hormone release, migration, cell proliferation, and cell death.

Molecular mechanisms for passive and active transport of water

Water crosses cell membranes by passive transport and by secondary active cotransport along with ions. While the first concept is well established, the second is new. The two modes of transport allow cellular H2O homeostasis to be viewed as a balance between H2O leaks and H2O pumps. Consequently, cells can be hyperosmolar relative to their surroundings during steady states. Under physiological conditions, cells from leaky epithelia may be hyperosmolar by roughly 5 mosm liter-1, under dilute conditions, hyperosmolarities up to 40 mosm liter-1 have been recorded. Most intracellular H2O is free to serve as solvent for small inorganic ions. The mechanism of transport across the membrane depends on how H2O interacts with the proteinaceous or lipoid pathways. Osmotic transport of H2O through specific H2O channels such as CHIP 28 is hydraulic if the pore is impermeable to the solute and diffusive if the pore is permeable. Cotransport of ions and H2O can be a result of conformational changes in proteins, which in addition to ion transport also translocate H2O bound to or occlude in the protein. A cellular model of a leaky epithelium based on H2O leaks and H2O pumps quantitatively predicts a number of so-far unexplained observations of H2O transport.

Evidence for the involvement of a K+ channel in isosmotic cell shrinking in vestibular dark cells

Cell volume changes were measured in dark cells. Isosmotic addition of 21.4 mM K+, Rb+, Cs+, or NH4+ to a control solution containing 3.6 mM K+ caused piretanide-sensitive cell swelling (initial rate for K+, 0.100 +/- 0.005 microns/s; n = 119), suggesting dependence on the Na(+)-Cl(-)-K+ cotransporter. Subsequent isosmotic removal of 21.4 mM K+ caused piretanide-insensitive cell shrinking (initial rate, -0.104 +/- 0.005 microns/s; n = 119), which was inhibited by barium, lidocaine, quinidine, quinine, verapamil, and 4-aminopyridine but not tetraethylammonium (TEA) or glibenclamide, suggesting the involvement of K+ channel(s). Barium, lidocaine, quinine, quinidine, and 4-aminopyridine caused cell swelling in control solution (initial rate for barium, 0.011 +/- 0.004 microns/s; n = 6), suggesting that the K+ channel is also involved in efflux under control conditions. Cell shrinking was slowed by 21.4 mM extracellular K+, Rb+, or Cs+ but unaffected by Na+, Li+, TEA+, or NH4+ (all in the presence of piretanide and compared with N-methyl-D-glucamine), supporting the notion that the efflux mechanism is permeable to and/or inhibited by K+, Rb+, and Cs+. Cell shrinking was slowed by the presumed replacement of intracellular K+ by Cs+ but not by Rb+. Circumstantial evidence suggests that this putative K+ channel is present in the basolateral membrane. The physiological relevance of such a K+ channel might encompass regulatory volume decrease during K+ secretion.

Regulation of apical membrane ion transport in Necturus gallbladder

Na and Cl movement through the apical membrane of Necturus gallbladder epithelium was investigated using electrophysiological and light microscopic measurements. Changes in membrane potential difference, fractional resistance of the apical membrane, and transepithelial resistance caused by changes in apical bath Cl concentration revealed the presence of a Cl conductance in the apical membrane of control tissues that was apparently not present in the preparations studied by other investigators. This Cl conductance was blocked by bumetanide (10(-5) M) or by the inhibitor of adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) action, the Rp isomer of adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate (Rp-cAMPS; 0.5 mM). Treatment of the tissues with Rp-cAMPS also eliminated bumetanide-sensitive cell swelling in the presence of ouabain and activated an amiloride-sensitive swelling, changes consistent with inhibition of NaCl cotransport and the activation of Na-H and Cl-HCO3 exchange. We conclude that the mode of NaCl entry into Necturus gallbladder epithelial cells is determined by the level of cAMP. When cAMP levels are high, entry occurs by NaCl cotransport; when cAMP levels are low, parallel exchange of Na-H and Cl-HCO3 predominates. These observations explain the previous disagreements about the mode of NaCl entry into Necturus gallbladder epithelial cells.

K(+)-induced swelling of vestibular dark cells is dependent on Na+ and Cl- and inhibited by piretanide

Epithelial cell height was measured in order to estimate the cell volume of dark cells from the ampullae of the semicircular canal of the gerbil. Under control conditions, addition of 10(-4) mol/l piretanide, 10(-5) mol/l 5-nitro-2(3-phenylpropylamino)-benzoic acid (NPPB), 5 mmol/l barium or 10(-3) mol/l quinidine had no significant effect on cell height. Addition of 10(-4) mol/l NPPB or 10(-3) mol/l ouabain led to a small significant decrease in cell height which was not reversible. Substitution of Na+ by N-methyl-D-glucamine or of Cl- by gluconate led to a significant and reversible reduction in cell height. Isotonic elevation of [K+] from 3.6 to 25 mmol/l in a PO4-buffered, HCO3-free solution led to an increase in cell height from 5.8 +/- 0.1 (SEM) to 8.7 +/- 0.2 microns (n = 62) during the first 40 s. During prolonged exposure to elevated [K+] (3-5 min; n = 19), some tissue samples underwent a regulatory volume decrease. K(+)-induced swelling was absent in both isotonic Cl(-)-free and isotonic Na(+)-free solutions and was inhibited by the loop diuretic piretanide (10(-5) and 10(-4) mol/l) or by the (Na+ + K+) ATPase inhibitor ouabain (10(-3) mol/l) or by 10(-4) mol/l NPPB. After the removal of ouabain or 10(-4) mol/l NPPB, K(+)-induced swelling under control conditions was enhanced and was less reversible as compared to control conditions before the experiment. K(+)-induced swelling was not altered by NPPB (10(-5) mol/l) or barium (5 mmol/l); however, barium slowed shrinking upon return of [K+] to control level. In the presence of 10(-3) mol/l quinidine, K(+)-induced swelling was enhanced and not reversible. These data suggest that dark cells from the semicircular canal possess an Na+2Cl-K+ cotransporter as a solute uptake mechanism and a solute efflux mechanism which is sensitive to barium and inhibited by quinidine.

Double-barreled K+-selective microelectrodes based on dibenzo-18-crown-6

Liquid ion-exchanger microelectrodes based on Corning code 477317 K+ exchanger are known to be much more sensitive to quaternary ammonium ions than to K+. In the presence of such cations, the capability of measuring K+ activities with Corning microelectrodes may be seriously impaired. We have developed a neutral carrier K+-selective microelectrode based on the crown ether dibenzo-18-crown-6. The crown ether cocktail contained (wt/wt) 2.3% dibenzo-18-crown-6, 0.8% Na-tetraphenylborate, 30.1% 2-nitrophenylocylether, and 66.8% O-nitrotoluene. Double-barreled crown ether and Corning microelectrodes were calibrated in KCl solutions with or without choline, acetylcholine, tetramethylammonium, imidazole, Na+, tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris), and N-methyl-D-glucamine. Both kinds of microelectrodes showed similar K+ over Na+, Tris, and N-methyl-D-glucamine selectivities. However, crown ether microelectrodes had immensely greater selectivities of K+ over quaternary ammonium ions and imidazole than Corning microelectrodes. Selectivity factors, defined as log K(ij)K, of crown ether microelectrodes with respect to K+ for tetramethylammonium, choline, acetylcholine, and imidazole were -1.92 +/- 0.13, -2.97 +/- 0.03, -1.75 +/- 0.15, and -1.30 +/- 0.20, respectively. Intracellular K+ activities measured in the same Necturus gallbladders with both kinds of microelectrodes did not differ significantly.