The family relations, peer relations, and criminal activities of Caucasian and Hispanic-American gang members

Predicting Chinese Adolescents' Depressive Symptoms from Their Cultural Orientations and Perceived Parental Psychological Control

Research on adolescents across cultures has suggested a positive link between parental psychological control and adolescent depression. While a few studies have examined psychological outcomes of adolescents in collectivist groups compared to individualist groups, much less is known about the role of cultural orientations in the parental control-depression link at the individual level. The current study examined: (1) both mother and father psychological control as predictors of depressive symptoms in Chinese adolescents, (2) adolescents' cultural orientations of individualism and collectivism as predictors of their depressive symptoms, and (3) the moderating effects of adolescents' cultural orientations on the association between parental control and depressive symptoms. The sample included 3255 adolescents located in southern China. Adolescents reported on their orientations of individualism and collectivism, perceived mothers' and fathers' psychological control, and their depressive symptoms. Analyses revealed that both mother and father psychological control as well as adolescents' individualism were positive predictors of adolescent depressive symptoms, whereas collectivism was a negative predictor of depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the results indicated that cultural orientations had weak moderating effects on the link between parental control and adolescent depressive symptoms. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Parenting Behaviors of Anxious Mothers and Youth Internalizing Symptoms: A Preliminary Cross-Ethnic Investigation

This pilot study examined youth report (ages 7 to 15) of maternal parenting behaviors (Psychological Control and Acceptance) and their association with internalizing symptoms in the children of clinically anxious non-Hispanic white and Latina mothers (N = 28). Compared to non-Hispanic white mothers, Latina mothers were rated by their children as higher in Psychological Control; a significant group difference in maternal Acceptance was not detected. Across the entire sample, lower maternal Acceptance was associated with higher somatic symptoms, and unexpectedly, higher Psychological Control was associated with lower youth anxiety. Ethnic-specific associations also emerged: higher maternal Psychological Control was associated with increased somatic symptoms in Latino youths, and lower Acceptance was associated with higher anxiety and depressive symptoms in non-Hispanic white youths. Broadly, results suggest that the linkages between parenting behaviors of anxious mothers and youth emotional functioning may vary by cultural context. This exploratory study helps to generate hypotheses for larger studies; recommendations for further investigation of these phenomena are suggested.

An Empirical Theory of the Development of Homicide within Individuals

There have been many attempts to explain violent behavior, identify its causes, and predict its occurrence among youth and adults. Research and theoretical constructions have dealt with such far-ranging aspects as childhood health, peer and parental interactions, neuropsychological function, school and community support, and substance use and dependency. Theories have tended to focus on one or a few of these aspects, but there is an effort by many researchers to converge on an integrated approach. By demonstrating unique risk patterns in random samples of later-homicidal abused infants, children, and youth, violent and homicidal delinquents, and homicidal adults, five studies by Zagar and colleagues provide the best current empirical evidence for a view of the development of delinquency as a process of accumulating risks. These risks begin with prenatal substance exposure and continue with abusive or neglectful parenting, academic failure, court contacts, compromised executive function and resultant poor social functioning. Analysis by sex shows that males' and females' risks are virtually identical. Various theories are evaluated with respect to these empirical risk patterns for development of violence and homicide. A proposal for the necessary elements of a successful, overarching explanatory theory is offered.

Influence of gang membership on negative affect, substance use, and antisocial behavior among homeless African American male youth

The current study examined differences between gang-involved and non-gang-involved homeless African American male youth with regard to negative affect, substance use, and antisocial/violent behavior. A total of 69 homeless African American young men were recruited from community agencies and completed structured face-to-face interviews. Overall, gang members reported higher rates of negative mental and physical health outcomes than did non-gang members, with current gang members reporting higher levels of depression and anxiety, greater levels of antisocial and violent behavior, and higher levels of lifetime alcohol and marijuana use. Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that greater levels of gang involvement were associated with more frequent lifetime use of alcohol and marijuana and higher levels of participation in violent behaviors. Implications of these findings for interventions with homeless African American male youth and future research directions are discussed.

At both ends of the gun: testing the relationship between community violence exposure and youth violent behavior

Much psychological inquiry has focused on understanding the contribution that exposure to urban violence makes to violent behavior among youth. However, other ways in which these variables may be related have been largely overlooked. This study compared four alternative social-ecological models of the link between community violence exposure and violent behavior to determine the degree to which (1) community violence exposure contributes to violent behavior, (2) violent behavior contributes to community violence exposure, (3) both are consequences of common antecedents, and (4) both are manifestations of the same higher order construct. Two hundred and seventy-seven adolescent offenders were interviewed about family, neighborhood, cognitive, and peer characteristics, in addition to violent behavior and community violence exposure. Results suggest that a plausible way to understand the association between community violence exposure and youth violent behavior is to consider both as representations of a general involvement in violence.

Pathways to risk among inner-city African-American adolescent females: the influence of gang membership

Differential rates of participation in three categories of risk behaviors (i.e., sexual activity, substance use, violence) were explored, comparing gang members to nonmembers, within a sample of 1,143 inner-city African American adolescent females. The relationship between gang membership and risk behavior also was examined, by exploring the association between a variety of microsystemic influences (e.g., gang, family, school) and participation in risk behaviors. MANOVA analyses indicated that gang members, relative to nonmembers, reported higher rates of participation in each of the three categories of risk behaviors. Stepwise linear regression analyses indicated that gang membership was the variable with the most consistent predictive ability, across all categories of risk, as it entered early in all equations and remained in all three final models after controlling for other statistically significant contextual variables. Findings suggest that intervention efforts aimed at reducing adolescent females' participation in sexual activity, substance use, and violence should consider the influence of gang membership on the participation in these behaviors.

Multisystemic treatment of criminality and violence in adolescents

OBJECTIVE

To discuss the emergent success of multisystemic therapy (MST), a family-based therapeutic approach that has been viewed as a promising treatment for violence and other serious antisocial behaviors in adolescents.

METHOD

The empirical underpinnings, theoretical foundation, and clinical features of MST are described, followed by a brief review of studies of MST effectiveness with serious juvenile offenders.

RESULTS

The theoretical foundation and clinical features of MST draw upon empirical findings regarding the multidetermined nature of serious antisocial behavior as well as upon social-ecological models of behavior in which the youth and family's school, work, peers, and neighborhood are viewed as interconnected systems with dynamic and reciprocal influences on the behavior of family members. In controlled studies with serious juvenile offenders, MST has demonstrated long-term reductions in criminal activity, violent offenses, drug-related arrests, and incarceration.

CONCLUSIONS

The success of MST can be attributed primarily to (1) the match between MST intervention foci and empirically identified correlates/causes of criminality and violence in adolescents (e.g., parental discipline, family affective relations, peer associations, school performance) and (2) the flexible use of well-validated intervention strategies in the natural environment.

The relationship between socioeconomic factors and gang violence in the City of Los Angeles

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between community-level socioeconomic factors and the incidence of gang-related homicide in the city of Los Angeles.

METHODS

An ecological group-level analysis was conducted to correlate the 5-year incidence rates (from 1988 through 1992) of gang-related homicide with community-level socioeconomic statistics for the 18 geographically distinct Los Angeles Police Department divisions. Eight socioeconomic factors were examined: (1) log mean per capita income, (2) proportion employed, (3) proportion high school graduates, (4) proportion single-parent families, (5) proportion male, (6) proportion younger than 20 years of age, (7) proportion African American, and (8) proportion Hispanic. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for the interrelationships among the study variables and gang-related homicide. Adjusted regression estimates were calculated from a multiple linear regression model.

RESULTS

The overall 5-year gang-related homicide rate for the city was 48.8 per 100,000, with a range of 5.2 to 173.5 per 100,000 among the different Los Angeles Police Department divisions. Pearson correlation coefficients revealed that the strongest negative correlations with gang-related homicide were log mean per capita income and proportion employed, and the strongest positive correlations were proportion single-parent families and proportion younger than 20 years of age. With mutual adjustment of all variables, only log mean per capita income and proportion employed were significantly associated with gang-related homicide.

CONCLUSION

At the community level, gang-related homicide in Los Angeles is most closely associated with lower income and unemployment. These relationships may provide important insights into the causes of gang formation and gang violence.

A peer approach to high risk youth

Denver's Gang Rescue and Support Project (GRASP) is a peer run intervention for youth involved in gangs and those feeling pressure to affiliate with them. GRASP utilizes small group meetings and mentoring to encourage young people to pursue positive life-style changes.

Understanding ethnicity, identity formation, and risk behavior among adolescents of Mexican descent

The population of adolescents of Mexican descent is growing rapidly in the United States. However, the health needs of this group are not being adequately addressed by the health care system. Understanding the factors contributing to risk behavior in adolescents of Mexican descent may help improve service delivery and use. This article presents a sociodemographic profile of this group as well as a description of how one's degree of ethnic identification, acculturation, and other risk factors may contribute to problem behavior. Recommendations are provided to increase culturally appropriate prevention programs for youth of Mexican descent.