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Andersen JV, Schousboe A. Glial Glutamine Homeostasis in Health and Disease. Neurochem Res 2023; 48:1100-1128. [PMID: 36322369 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-022-03771-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Glutamine is an essential cerebral metabolite. Several critical brain processes are directly linked to glutamine, including ammonia homeostasis, energy metabolism and neurotransmitter recycling. Astrocytes synthesize and release large quantities of glutamine, which is taken up by neurons to replenish the glutamate and GABA neurotransmitter pools. Astrocyte glutamine hereby sustains the glutamate/GABA-glutamine cycle, synaptic transmission and general brain function. Cerebral glutamine homeostasis is linked to the metabolic coupling of neurons and astrocytes, and relies on multiple cellular processes, including TCA cycle function, synaptic transmission and neurotransmitter uptake. Dysregulations of processes related to glutamine homeostasis are associated with several neurological diseases and may mediate excitotoxicity and neurodegeneration. In particular, diminished astrocyte glutamine synthesis is a common neuropathological component, depriving neurons of an essential metabolic substrate and precursor for neurotransmitter synthesis, hereby leading to synaptic dysfunction. While astrocyte glutamine synthesis is quantitatively dominant in the brain, oligodendrocyte-derived glutamine may serve important functions in white matter structures. In this review, the crucial roles of glial glutamine homeostasis in the healthy and diseased brain are discussed. First, we provide an overview of cellular recycling, transport, synthesis and metabolism of glutamine in the brain. These cellular aspects are subsequently discussed in relation to pathological glutamine homeostasis of hepatic encephalopathy, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Further studies on the multifaceted roles of cerebral glutamine will not only increase our understanding of the metabolic collaboration between brain cells, but may also aid to reveal much needed therapeutic targets of several neurological pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens V Andersen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Arne Schousboe
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Papageorgiou IE, Valous NA, Lahrmann B, Janova H, Klaft ZJ, Koch A, Schneider UC, Vajkoczy P, Heppner FL, Grabe N, Halama N, Heinemann U, Kann O. Astrocytic glutamine synthetase is expressed in the neuronal somatic layers and down-regulated proportionally to neuronal loss in the human epileptic hippocampus. Glia 2018; 66:920-933. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ismini E. Papageorgiou
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 326; Heidelberg D-69120 Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 364; Heidelberg D-69120 Germany
- Present address: Institute of Radiology, Südharz Klinikum Nordhausen gGmbH, Dr.-Robert-Koch-Str. 39; Nordhausen D-99734 Germany
| | - Nektarios A. Valous
- Applied Tumor Immunity Clinical Cooperation Unit, National Center for Tumor Diseases, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 460; Heidelberg D-69120 Germany
- Department of Medical Oncology; National Center for Tumor Diseases, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 460; Heidelberg D-69120 Germany
| | - Bernd Lahrmann
- Hamamatsu Tissue Imaging and Analysis Center (TIGA), National Center for Tumor Diseases, BIOQUANT, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, University of Heidelberg; Heidelberg D-69120 Germany
- Steinbeis Transfer Center for Medical Systems Biology, Heckerstr. 9; Heidelberg D-69124 Germany
| | - Hana Janova
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience; Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hermann-Rein-str. 3; Göttingen D-37075 Germany
| | - Zin-Juan Klaft
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1; Berlin D-10117 Germany
- Neuroscience Research Center, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1; Berlin D-10117 Germany
| | - Arend Koch
- Institute of Neuropathology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charité Campus Mitte, Charitéplatz 1; Berlin D-10117 Germany
| | - Ulf C. Schneider
- Department of Neurosurgery; Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow Medical Center, Augustenplatz 1; Berlin D-11353 Germany
| | - Peter Vajkoczy
- Department of Neurosurgery; Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow Medical Center, Augustenplatz 1; Berlin D-11353 Germany
| | - Frank L. Heppner
- Institute of Neuropathology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charité Campus Mitte, Charitéplatz 1; Berlin D-10117 Germany
| | - Niels Grabe
- Hamamatsu Tissue Imaging and Analysis Center (TIGA), National Center for Tumor Diseases, BIOQUANT, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267, University of Heidelberg; Heidelberg D-69120 Germany
- Steinbeis Transfer Center for Medical Systems Biology, Heckerstr. 9; Heidelberg D-69124 Germany
| | - Niels Halama
- Department of Medical Oncology; National Center for Tumor Diseases, University Hospital Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 460; Heidelberg D-69120 Germany
| | - Uwe Heinemann
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1; Berlin D-10117 Germany
- Neuroscience Research Center, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1; Berlin D-10117 Germany
| | - Oliver Kann
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 326; Heidelberg D-69120 Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 364; Heidelberg D-69120 Germany
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Bozdagi O, Nagy V, Kwei KT, Huntley GW. In vivo roles for matrix metalloproteinase-9 in mature hippocampal synaptic physiology and plasticity. J Neurophysiol 2007; 98:334-44. [PMID: 17493927 PMCID: PMC4415272 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00202.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular proteolysis is an important regulatory nexus for coordinating synaptic functional and structural plasticity, but the identity of such proteases is incompletely understood. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have well-known, mostly deleterious roles in remodeling after injury or stroke, but their role in nonpathological synaptic plasticity and function in intact adult brains has not been extensively investigated. Here we address the role of MMP-9 in hippocampal synaptic plasticity using both gain- and loss-of-function approaches in urethane-anesthetized adult rats. Acute blockade of MMP-9 proteolytic activity with inhibitors or neutralizing antibodies impairs maintenance, but not induction, of long-term potentiation (LTP) at synapses formed between Schaffer-collaterals and area CA1 dendrites. LTP is associated with significant increases in levels of MMP-9 and proteolytic activity within the potentiated neuropil. By introducing a novel application of gelatin-substrate zymography in vivo, we find that LTP is associated with significantly elevated numbers of gelatinolytic puncta in the potentiated neuropil that codistribute with immunolabeling for MMP-9 and for markers of synapses and dendrites. Such increases in proteolytic activity require NMDA receptor activation. Exposing intact area CA1 neurons to recombinant-active MMP-9 induces a slow synaptic potentiation that mutually occludes, and is occluded by, tetanically evoked potentiation. Taken together, our data reveal novel roles for MMP-mediated proteolysis in regulating nonpathological synaptic function and plasticity in mature hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozlem Bozdagi
- Fishberg Dept of Neuroscience, The Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA
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Nomura H, Furuta A, Suzuki SO, Iwaki T. Dorsal horn lesion resulting from spinal root avulsion leads to the accumulation of stress-responsive proteins. Brain Res 2001; 893:84-94. [PMID: 11222996 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(00)03291-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to demonstrate acute to subacute molecular episodes in the dorsal horn following root avulsion using immunohistochemical methods with the markers for synapses, astrocytes and such stress-responsive molecules as heat shock proteins (Hsps) and p38 MAP kinase (p38). Among them, Hsp27 was accumulated selectively in the injured substantia gelatinosa 24 h after avulsion injury. The localization of Hsp27 in astrocytes within the substantia gelatinosa was confirmed by the double immunofluorescence method using anti-Hsp27 antibody and either anti-synaptophysin antibody or anti-glutamine synthetase antibody and by immunoelectron microscopy for Hsp27. The pattern of Hsp27 expression subsequently changed from glial pattern to punctate pattern by 7 days. Immunoelectron microscopy revealed that the punctate pattern in the subacute stage corresponded to distal parts of the astrocytic processes. Hsp27 immunoreaction was decreased 21 days after root avulsion. In the distal axotomy model, Hsp27 was accumulated later in the ipsilateral dorsal horn in a punctate pattern from 7 days after the axotomy. Phosphorylation of p38 was detected in microglia in the dorsal horn following both avulsion and axotomy. Substance P was slightly decreased in the injured substantia gelatinosa in both the avulsion and axotomy models around 14-21 days. We conclude that Hsp27 is a useful marker for demonstrating dorsal horn lesions following avulsion injury and that avulsion injury may induce Hsp27 in the dorsal horn more rapidly than distal axotomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Nomura
- Department of Neuropathology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan.
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Li H, Godfrey DA, Rubin AM. Astrocyte reaction in the rat vestibular nuclei after unilateral removal of Scarpa's ganglion. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1999; 108:181-8. [PMID: 10030238 DOI: 10.1177/000348949910800214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Unilateral vestibular ganglionectomy (UVG) results in a complete degeneration of vestibular nerve fibers and terminals in the ipsilateral vestibular nuclear complex (VNC). A subsequent glial reaction may affect the activities of VNC neurons and thereby influence compensation for lesion-induced vestibular disorders. Expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a specific marker for reactive astrocytes, was demonstrated immunohistochemically in the rat VNC at 7, 14, and 35 days after UVG. An increased GFAP-positive astrocytic response was evident at 7 days after lesion in all the VNC regions on the lesioned side and in some regions on the unlesioned side and remained through 35 days. The glial response included hypertrophy, which was more prominent at 7 days than at 14 days or 35 days, and proliferation, more prominent at the later times, of GFAP-positive astrocytes. Astrocytic projections around VNC neuron somata and proximal dendrites increased in number and became thicker and more elongated, especially at 14 days, in the lateral vestibular nucleus. It is suggested that UVG results in a bilateral astrocytic reaction in the VNC that would affect the subsequent compensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Li
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, The Medical College of Ohio, Toledo 43614, USA
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Lie-Venema H, Hakvoort TB, van Hemert FJ, Moorman AF, Lamers WH. Regulation of the spatiotemporal pattern of expression of the glutamine synthetase gene. PROGRESS IN NUCLEIC ACID RESEARCH AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1998; 61:243-308. [PMID: 9752723 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6603(08)60829-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Glutamine synthetase, the enzyme that catalyzes the ATP-dependent conversion of glutamate and ammonia into glutamine, is expressed in a tissue-specific and developmentally controlled manner. The first part of this review focuses on its spatiotemporal pattern of expression, the factors that regulate its levels under (patho)physiological conditions, and its role in glutamine, glutamate, and ammonia metabolism in mammals. Glutamine synthetase protein stability is more than 10-fold reduced by its product glutamine and by covalent modifications. During late fetal development, translational efficiency increases more than 10-fold. Glutamine synthetase mRNA stability is negatively affected by cAMP, whereas glucocorticoids, growth hormone, insulin (all positive), and cAMP (negative) regulate its rate of transcription. The signal transduction pathways by which these factors may regulate the expression of glutamine synthetase are briefly discussed. The second part of the review focuses on the evolution, structure, and transcriptional regulation of the glutamine synthetase gene in rat and chicken. Two enhancers (at -6.5 and -2.5 kb) were identified in the upstream region and two enhancers (between +156 and +857 bp) in the first intron of the rat glutamine synthetase gene. In addition, sequence analysis suggests a regulatory role for regions in the 3' untranslated region of the gene. The immediate-upstream region of the chicken glutamine synthetase gene is responsible for its cell-specific expression, whereas the glucocorticoid-induced developmental appearance in the neural retina is governed by its far-upstream region.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Lie-Venema
- Department of Anatomy and Embryology, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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He Y, Ong WY, Leong SK, Garey LJ. Distribution of glutamate receptor subunit GluR1 and GABA in human cerebral neocortex: a double immunolabelling and electron microscopic study. Exp Brain Res 1996; 112:147-57. [PMID: 8951417 DOI: 10.1007/bf00227188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Specimens of human cerebral neocortex were obtained during neurosurgical operations and studied by immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy, using antibodies to the glutamate receptor subunit GluR1 and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Many GluR1-positive pyramidal neurons and fewer GluR1-positive non-pyramidal neurons were present in the cortex. Non-pyramidal neurons were more heavily labelled for GluR1 than pyramidal neurons. Most GABAergic neurons were labelled for GluR1. The white matter was unstained, except for occasional labelled neurons. This pattern of GluR1 immunostaining is similar to that in rat cerebral cortex, but is different from that in the hippocampus and amygdala, where large numbers of pyramidal or projection neurons, but few non-pyramidal or GABAergic neurons, were labelled for GluR1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y He
- Department of Anatomy, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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Ong WY, Leong SK, Garey LJ, Reynolds R. A light- and electron-microscopic study of GluR4-positive cells in cerebral cortex, subcortical white matter and corpus callosum of neonatal, immature and adult rats. Exp Brain Res 1996; 110:367-78. [PMID: 8871096 DOI: 10.1007/bf00229137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of the [3H]alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxzalepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunit GluR4 was studied in frontal, parietal and temporal cerebral cortex, subcortical white matter and corpus callosum of neonatal, immature and mature rats. In 1- to 2-day-old rats, a few oligodendrocyte progenitors and amoeboid microglia in the supraventricular part of the corpus callosum were immunolabelled for GluR4. At 7 to 10 days, the number of amoeboid microglia and oligodendrocyte progenitors in white matter increased; many neurons in cortex, including pyramidal neurons, were also moderately labelled for GluR4. The pattern of GluR4 immunostaining in 14-day-old rats was different from that in 7- to 10-day-old rats, but similar to the adult, in that there was no immunoreactivity in microglia and oligodendrocyte progenitors in subcortical white matter. A proportion of non-pyramidal neurons in cortex were moderately labelled, while some pyramidal neurons were lightly labelled. A population of small glial cells with features of oligodendrocyte progenitors were densely labelled in cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Y Ong
- Department of Anatomy, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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