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Yang X, Xu P, Yuan H, Graham RI, Wilson K, Wu K. Discovery and characterization of a novel picorna-like RNA virus in the cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera. J Invertebr Pathol 2019; 160:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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2
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Jakubowska AK, D'Angiolo M, González-Martínez RM, Millán-Leiva A, Carballo A, Murillo R, Caballero P, Herrero S. Simultaneous occurrence of covert infections with small RNA viruses in the lepidopteran Spodoptera exigua. J Invertebr Pathol 2014; 121:56-63. [PMID: 24997384 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2014.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Revised: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Viral covert infections in invertebrates have been traditionally attributed to sublethal infections that were not able to establish an acute infection. Recent studies are revealing that, although true for some viruses, other viruses may follow the strategy of establishing covert or persistent infections without producing the death of the host. Recently, and due to the revolution in the sequencing technologies, a large number of viruses causing covert infections in all type of hosts have been identified. The beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a worldwide pest that causes significant losses to agricultural and ornamental plant industries. In a previous project we used NGS to obtain a comprehensive transcriptome of the larval stage, revealing the presence of an important number of unigenes belonging to novel RNA viruses, most of them from the order Picornavirales. In order to characterize S. exigua viral complex, in this work we have completed the genomic sequences of two picorna-like viruses, and compared them to a SeIV1, a member of Iflaviridae previously described by our group. We performed additional studies to determine virus morphology, horizontal transmission, tissue and life stage distribution and abundance in the hosts. We discuss the role of virus persistent infections on insect populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata K Jakubowska
- Department of Genetics, Universitat de València, Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, Spain.
| | - Melania D'Angiolo
- Department of Genetics, Universitat de València, Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | | | - Anabel Millán-Leiva
- Department of Genetics, Universitat de València, Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Arkaitz Carballo
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología, CSIC-UPNa-Gobierno de Navarra, 31192 Mutilva Baja, Navarra, Spain
| | - Rosa Murillo
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología, CSIC-UPNa-Gobierno de Navarra, 31192 Mutilva Baja, Navarra, Spain
| | - Primitivo Caballero
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología, CSIC-UPNa-Gobierno de Navarra, 31192 Mutilva Baja, Navarra, Spain
| | - Salvador Herrero
- Department of Genetics, Universitat de València, Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
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3
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Xu J, Cherry S. Viruses and antiviral immunity in Drosophila. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 42:67-84. [PMID: 23680639 PMCID: PMC3826445 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Viral pathogens present many challenges to organisms, driving the evolution of a myriad of antiviral strategies to combat infections. A wide variety of viruses infect invertebrates, including both natural pathogens that are insect-restricted, and viruses that are transmitted to vertebrates. Studies using the powerful tools in the model organism Drosophila have expanded our understanding of antiviral defenses against diverse viruses. In this review, we will cover three major areas. First, we will describe the tools used to study viruses in Drosophila. Second, we will survey the major viruses that have been studied in Drosophila. And lastly, we will discuss the well-characterized mechanisms that are active against these diverse pathogens, focusing on non-RNAi mediated antiviral mechanisms. Antiviral RNAi is discussed in another paper in this issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Xu
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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4
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Gallagher TM, Friesen PD, Rueckert RR. Autonomous replication and expression of RNA 1 from black beetle virus. J Virol 2010; 46:481-9. [PMID: 16789241 PMCID: PMC255150 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.46.2.481-489.1983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Black beetle virions contain two RNAs. The smaller one, RNA 2, has previously been shown to be a messenger for viral coat protein. It is shown here, by infecting sensitized Drosophila cells with the individually purified RNAs, that the larger one, RNA 1, carries the viral gene(s) required for RNA polymerase functions. RNA 2 was dispensible for synthesis of viral RNA 1 and subgenomic RNA 3 but was essential for synthesis of RNA 2 and virions. Cells infected with RNA 1 alone produced RNA 3 in proportions 10- to 20-fold greater than cells infected with virions. This overproduction of RNA 3 decreased with increasing proportions of RNA 2 in the infecting RNA 1. We conclude that RNA 1 is the previously unidentified progenitor of subgenomic RNA 3, whereas RNA 2 regulates the amount of RNA 3 produced in the infected cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Gallagher
- Biophysics Laboratory of the Graduate School and Department of Biochemistry of the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706
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5
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Clewley JP, Crump WA, Avery RJ, Moore NF. Two unique RNA species of the nodavirus black beetle virus. J Virol 2010; 44:767-71. [PMID: 16789234 PMCID: PMC256333 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.44.3.767-771.1982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Two-dimensional fingerprinting of RNase T(1)-derived oligonucleotides of the two individual RNA segments of the Nodavirus black beetle virus indicates that each RNA species possesses a distinct nucleotide sequence. Species 1 RNA has a genome complexity of approximately 3,000 nucleotides, and species 2 RNA is composed of approximately 1,500 nucleotides. Submolar amounts of oligonucleotides apparently derived from a third virus-specific RNA were also detected in black beetle virus RNA preparations.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Clewley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, England
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6
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Habayeb MS, Cantera R, Casanova G, Ekström JO, Albright S, Hultmark D. The Drosophila Nora virus is an enteric virus, transmitted via feces. J Invertebr Pathol 2009; 101:29-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2009.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2008] [Revised: 02/04/2009] [Accepted: 02/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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7
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Zhou L, Zhang J, Wang X, Jiang H, Yi F, Hu Y. Expression and characterization of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of Dendrolimus punctatus tetravirus. BMB Rep 2006; 39:571-7. [PMID: 17002878 DOI: 10.5483/bmbrep.2006.39.5.571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendrolimus punctatus tetravirus (DpTV) has been identified as a new member of the genus Omegatetravirus of the family Tetraviridae that may be related serologically to Nudaurelia capensis virus (NomegaV). To establish the function of DpTV RNA genome and to better understand the mechanism of viral replication, the putative RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) domain has been cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant protein was purified on a Ni-chelating HisTrap affinity column and demonstrated to initiate viral RNA synthesis in a primer-independent manner but not by terminal nucleotidyle transferase activity in the presence of Mg2+ and RNA template. Mutation of the GDD to GAA interferes with the residues at the polymerase active site and metal ions, and thus renders the polymerase inactive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, P R China
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8
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Jan E. Divergent IRES elements in invertebrates. Virus Res 2005; 119:16-28. [PMID: 16307820 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2005.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2005] [Revised: 09/05/2005] [Accepted: 10/20/2005] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Viruses have evolved unique strategies and mechanisms to recruit ribosomes to ensure continued translation of their viral RNA during infection. The Dicistroviridae family of invertebrate viruses contains an unusual internal ribosome entry site (IRES), which can directly recruit ribosomes in the absence of initiation factors. Moreover, this IRES initiates translation at a non-AUG codon independent of an initiator Met-tRNA. Recent studies have shown that the IRES mimicks a tRNA to interact with and manipulate the ribosome. The presence of this divergent IRES likely allows translation of the dicistroviral RNA during infection when host translation is compromised. This review will explore the unique properties of this unprecedented mechanism of gene expression. Specific topics will examine structural components of the IRES, the mechanism of initiating translation at non-AUG codons and the regulation of this IRES in vivo. The existence of this mechanism suggests that the repertoire of open reading frames in our genome may be greater than anticipated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Jan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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9
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Hartley CJ, Greenwood DR, Gilbert RJC, Masoumi A, Gordon KHJ, Hanzlik TN, Fry EE, Stuart DI, Scotti PD. Kelp fly virus: a novel group of insect picorna-like viruses as defined by genome sequence analysis and a distinctive virion structure. J Virol 2005; 79:13385-98. [PMID: 16227260 PMCID: PMC1262566 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.21.13385-13398.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2005] [Accepted: 08/05/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The complete genomic sequence of kelp fly virus (KFV), originally isolated from the kelp fly, Chaetocoelopa sydneyensis, has been determined. Analyses of its genomic and structural organization and phylogeny show that it belongs to a hitherto undescribed group within the picorna-like virus superfamily. The single-stranded genomic RNA of KFV is 11,035 nucleotides in length and contains a single large open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of 3,436 amino acids with 5' and 3' untranslated regions of 384 and 343 nucleotides, respectively. The predicted amino acid sequence of the polypeptide shows that it has three regions. The N-terminal region contains sequences homologous to the baculoviral inhibitor of apoptosis repeat domain, an inhibitor of apoptosis commonly found in animals and in viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes. The second region contains at least two capsid proteins. The third region has three sequence motifs characteristic of replicase proteins of many plant and animal viruses, including a helicase, a 3C chymotrypsin-like protease, and an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Phylogenetic analysis of the replicase motifs shows that KFV forms a distinct and distant taxon within the picorna-like virus superfamily. Cryoelectron microscopy and image reconstruction of KFV to a resolution of 15 A reveals an icosahedral structure, with each of its 12 fivefold vertices forming a turret from the otherwise smooth surface of the 20-A-thick capsid. The architecture of the KFV capsid is unique among the members of the picornavirus superfamily for which structures have previously been determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Hartley
- CSIRO Entomology, GPO Box 1700, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia.
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10
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Jan E, Thompson SR, Wilson JE, Pestova TV, Hellen CU, Sarnow P. Initiator Met-tRNA-independent translation mediated by an internal ribosome entry site element in cricket paralysis virus-like insect viruses. COLD SPRING HARBOR SYMPOSIA ON QUANTITATIVE BIOLOGY 2003; 66:285-92. [PMID: 12762030 DOI: 10.1101/sqb.2001.66.285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E Jan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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11
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Pringle FM, Johnson KN, Goodman CL, McIntosh AH, Ball LA. Providence virus: a new member of the Tetraviridae that infects cultured insect cells. Virology 2003; 306:359-70. [PMID: 12642108 DOI: 10.1016/s0042-6822(02)00052-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We identified a new member of the Tetraviridae, Providence virus (PrV), persistently infecting a midgut cell line derived from the corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea). Virus purified from these cells also productively infected a H. zea fat body cell line, and a cell line from whole embryos of the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua. PrV is thus the first tetravirus shown to replicate in cell culture. PrV virions are isometric particles composed of two structural proteins (60 and 7.4 kDa) that encapsidate both the genomic (6.4 kb) and the subgenomic (2.5 kb) RNAs. The monopartite organization of the PrV genome resembles that of Nudaurelia beta virus and Thosea asigna virus, members of the genus Betatetravirus. The predicted sequence of the PrV structural proteins demonstrates homology to tetraviruses in both genera. The infectivity of PrV for cultured cells uniquely permitted examination of tetravirus RNA and protein synthesis during synchronous infection. The discovery of PrV greatly facilitates studies of tetravirus molecular biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona M Pringle
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 845 19th Street South, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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12
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Wilson JE, Powell MJ, Hoover SE, Sarnow P. Naturally occurring dicistronic cricket paralysis virus RNA is regulated by two internal ribosome entry sites. Mol Cell Biol 2000; 20:4990-9. [PMID: 10866656 PMCID: PMC85949 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.20.14.4990-4999.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cricket paralysis virus is a member of a group of insect picorna-like viruses. Cloning and sequencing of the single plus-strand RNA genome revealed the presence of two nonoverlapping open reading frames, ORF1 and ORF2, that encode the nonstructural and structural proteins, respectively. We show that each ORF is preceded by one internal ribosome entry site (IRES). The intergenic IRES is located 6,024 nucleotides from the 5' end of the viral RNA and is more active than the IRES located at the 5' end of the RNA, providing a mechanistic explanation for the increased abundance of structural proteins relative to nonstructural proteins in infected cells. Mutational analysis of this intergenic-region IRES revealed that ORF2 begins with a noncognate CCU triplet. Complementarity of this CCU triplet with sequences in the IRES is important for IRES function, pointing to an involvement of RNA-RNA interactions in translation initiation. Thus, the cricket paralysis virus genome is an example of a naturally occurring, functionally dicistronic eukaryotic mRNA whose translation is controlled by two IRES elements located at the 5' end and in the middle of the mRNA. This finding argues that eukaryotic mRNAs can express multiple proteins not only by polyprotein processing, reinitiation and frameshifting but also by using multiple IRES elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Wilson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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13
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Bawden AL, Gordon KH, Hanzlik TN. The specificity of Helicoverpa armigera stunt virus infectivity. J Invertebr Pathol 1999; 74:156-63. [PMID: 10486228 DOI: 10.1006/jipa.1999.4858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Helicoverpa armigera stunt virus (HaSV) is a member of the Tetraviridae family of RNA viruses whose replication and expression strategies are not well understood due to the absence of an in vitro cell culture system. We set out to find such a system for HaSV by screening an array of 13 insect and 1 mammalian cell culture lines with both virus particle infection and genomic RNA transfection. No cell line was found to be permissive for replication, although entry of genomic RNA was verified. The apparent specificity of this virus for its in vivo midgut target site was strongly corroborated by studies involving Northern blots of RNA extracted from infected insects. Only larval midgut RNA showed the presence of virus after hosts were infected per os or by injection which exposed other host cell types to the virus. The absence of replication in cell culture was due to a lack, or presence, of host factors important to replicase activity and also the likely absence of virus particle binding and entry. We thus provide both in vitro- and in vivo-based evidence demonstrating that this virus is extremely specific in the type of cells in which it will initiate an infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Bawden
- Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
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14
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15
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Virus-like particles in testes of Heliothis virescens, H. subflexa, and backcross males derived from the hybridization of H. virescens males × H. subflexa females. J Invertebr Pathol 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-2011(89)90112-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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16
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King LA, Moore NF. Evidence for the presence of a genome-linked protein in two insect picornaviruses, cricket paralysis and Drosophila C viruses. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1988. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1988.tb02908.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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17
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18
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Hashimoto Y, Watanabe A, Kawase S. Evidence for the presence of a genome-linked protein in infectious flacherie virus. Arch Virol 1986; 90:301-12. [PMID: 3729730 DOI: 10.1007/bf01317378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The genomic RNA of infectious flacherie virus (IFV), an insect picornavirus, was shown to contain a covalently attached substance which can be labeled with 125I-Bolton and Hunter reagent. This substance was found to be a protein covalently linked to the virus genome, because it cosedimented and was copurified with the viral RNA and was degraded by proteinase K but not by RNases. The molecular weight of the protein was found to be 11,500 in the sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. This protein apparently corresponds to viral protein genome-linked (VPg) detected in mammalian picornaviruses, because it was not required for the synthesis of viral proteins in a cell-free translation system of a rabbit reticulocyte lysate and because it was not immunochemically related to the virus capsid proteins. The results presented here leave a possibility that insect picornavirus also replicates its RNA by using VPg as a primer as reported for mammalian picornaviruses. These observations on VPg of an insect picornavirus are discussed in the view point of comparative virology.
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King L, Merryweather A, Moore N. Proteins expressed in vitro by two members of the Nudaurelia β family of viruses, Trichoplusia ni and Dasychira pudibunda viruses. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/s0769-2617(84)80002-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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20
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Pullin JS, Black F, King LA, Entwistle PF, Moore NF. Characterization of a Small RNA-Containing Virus in Field-Collected Larvae of the Tussock Moth,
Lymantria ninayi
, from Papua New Guinea. Appl Environ Microbiol 1984; 48:504-7. [PMID: 16346620 PMCID: PMC241556 DOI: 10.1128/aem.48.3.504-507.1984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Field-collected larvae of the tussock moth,
Lymantria ninayi
, a major pest of exotic pines in Papua New Guinea, were found to contain a small RNA-containing virus with a diameter of 29 nm and a buoyant density of 1.32 g/ml. The RNA was single stranded, had a molecular weight of 2.8 × 10
6
, and was polyadenylated. Virion RNA stimulated an in vitro translation system, and high-molecular-weight proteins were produced. Purified virions contained four structural proteins with molecular weights of 43,000, 38,000, 33,000, and 32,000. The virus reacted positively with antisera raised against a strain of
Drosophila
C virus. The properties of this virus indicate that it should be placed in the family Picornaviridae.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Pullin
- NERC Institute of Virology, Oxford OX1 3SR, United Kingdom
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Reavy B, Moore NF. The gene organisation of a small RNA-containing insect virus: comparison with that of mammalian picornaviruses. Virology 1983; 131:551-4. [PMID: 6659369 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(83)90520-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The coding regions of an insect virus, cricket paralysis virus, have been mapped using pactamycin. The results suggest that the genome of this virus functions as a polycistronic mRNA, the structural proteins being encoded by the 5' end of the RNA in an order similar to those of mammalian picornaviruses. High-molecular-weight proteins of unknown function map at the 3' end of the genome.
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22
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Scotti PD, Dearing S, Mossop DW. Flock House virus: a nodavirus isolated from Costelytra zealandica (White) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Arch Virol 1983; 75:181-9. [PMID: 6188442 DOI: 10.1007/bf01315272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The physico-chemical properties of Flock House virus (FHV) were examined. FHV was shown to have a single-stranded RNA genome divided between two species of MW 1.1 and 0.46 million; the genome was infectious. FHV has a single, coat protein of 43,000 MW. The virus sediments at 142S and has a density of 1.351 g/ml in CsCl at pH 7. These properties indicate that FHV is a nodavirus but it is distinguishable from Nodamura virus and black beetle virus by differences in electrophoretic mobility, the size of the coat protein, particle density and stability in CsCl.
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