Age-related changes in 2-[(125)I]-iodomelatonin binding sites in the brain of sea breams (Sparus aurata, L.)

Pituitary Hormones mRNA Abundance in the Mediterranean Sea Bass Dicentrarchus labrax: Seasonal Rhythms, Effects of Melatonin and Water Salinity

In fish, most hormonal productions of the pituitary gland display daily and/or seasonal rhythmic patterns under control by upstream regulators, including internal biological clocks. The pineal hormone melatonin, one main output of the clocks, acts at different levels of the neuroendocrine axis. Melatonin rhythmic production is synchronized mainly by photoperiod and temperature. Here we aimed at better understanding the role melatonin plays in regulating the pituitary hormonal productions in a species of scientific and economical interest, the euryhaline European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax. We investigated the seasonal variations in mRNA abundance of pituitary hormones in two groups of fish raised one in sea water (SW fish), and one in brackish water (BW fish). The mRNA abundance of three melatonin receptors was also studied in the SW fish. Finally, we investigated the in vitro effects of melatonin or analogs on the mRNA abundance of pituitary hormones at two times of the year and after adaptation to different salinities. We found that (1) the reproductive hormones displayed similar mRNA seasonal profiles regardless of the fish origin, while (2) the other hormones exhibited different patterns in the SW vs. the BW fish. (3) The melatonin receptors mRNA abundance displayed seasonal variations in the SW fish. (4) Melatonin affected mRNA abundance of most of the pituitary hormones in vitro; (5) the responses to melatonin depended on its concentration, the month investigated and the salinity at which the fish were previously adapted. Our results suggest that the productions of the pituitary are a response to multiple factors from internal and external origin including melatonin. The variety of the responses described might reflect a high plasticity of the pituitary in a fish that faces multiple external conditions along its life characterized by marked daily and seasonal changes in photoperiod, temperature and salinity.

Effects of LED light spectra on oxidative stress and the protective role of melatonin in relation to the daily rhythm of the yellowtail clownfish, Amphiprion clarkii

The present study aimed to test the effects of melatonin on oxidative stress in the yellowtail clownfish, Amphiprion clarkii, as produced by light emitting diodes (LEDs): red, green, and blue. We investigated the effects of the different LEDs on oxidative stress by measuring the mRNA expression of arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT2), the expression and activities of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, SOD (EC 1.15.1.1); and catalase, CAT (EC 1.11.1.6)), and plasma H2O2 and plasma melatonin levels. In red light, the expression of AANAT2, SOD, and CAT mRNA was significantly higher than those under the other light spectra. SOD and CAT activities and plasma H2O2 and melatonin levels were also significantly higher for the red spectra than those for the other light spectra. These results indicate that red light induces oxidative stress. To investigate the effects of melatonin on oxidative stress, we injected melatonin into live fish (in vivo) or treated cultured pineal organ (in vitro) with melatonin. We found that AANAT2, SOD, and CAT mRNA expression levels, SOD and CAT activities, and plasma H2O2, lipid peroxidation (LPO) and melatonin levels were significantly lower than those for the controls. Therefore, our results indicate that red light induces oxidative stress and melatonin plays the role of a strong antioxidant in yellowtail clownfish.

Continuous light and melatonin: daily and seasonal variations of brain binding sites and plasma concentration during the first reproductive cycle of sea bass

The present study reports on the daily and seasonal variations in plasma melatonin concentration, and also in optic tectum and hypothalamus melatonin binding sites, in male European sea bass maintained under natural photoperiod (NP) or continuous light (LL) from early stages of development. Samples were collected on a 24-h cycle, at four physiological phases of their first annual reproductive cycle, i.e., pre-spermatogenesis, spermatogenesis, spermiation and post-spermiation. Under NP, (1) plasma melatonin levels were higher at night than during the day regardless of the year period, and the duration of the signal matched the duration of the dark phase; (2) daily variations in Kd and Bmax were found in the optic tectum, but only during spermiation, with the acrophase being 180° out of phase with the plasma melatonin variations; and (3) significant seasonal Kd and Bmax changes were seen in the hypothalamus. Under LL, (1) plasma melatonin showed no elevation during the subjective night; and (2) Kd and Bmax exhibited seasonal variations in the hypothalamus. These results led to the conclusion that long-term exposure to LL affected both plasma melatonin and receptor oscillations; particularly, LL disrupted the receptor density circadian oscillation found in the optic tectum during spermiation under NP. This oscillation appears to be important for sea bass to pursue gametogenesis until full spermiation. The persistence of both daily and seasonal variation of receptor affinity and density in the hypothalamus under LL indicates that these variations are controlled by internal circadian and circannual clocks that do not involve melatonin.

Melatonin receptors in a pleuronectiform species, Solea senegalensis: Cloning, tissue expression, day-night and seasonal variations

Melatonin receptors are expressed in neural and peripheral tissues and mediate melatonin actions on the synchronization of circadian and circannual rhythms. In this study we have cloned three melatonin receptor subtypes (MT1, MT2 and Mel1c) in the Senegalese sole and analyzed their central and peripheral tissue distribution. The full-length MT1 (1452 nt), MT2 (1728 nt) and Mel1c (1980 nt) cDNAs encode different proteins of 345, 373, 355 amino acids, respectively. They were mainly expressed in retina, brain and pituitary, but MT1 was also expressed in gill, liver, intestine, kidney, spleen, heart and skin. At peripheral level, MT2 expression was only evident in gill, kidney and skin whereas Mel1c expression was restricted to the muscle and skin. This pattern of expression was not markedly different between sexes or among the times of day analyzed. The real-time quantitative PCR analyses showed that MT1 displayed higher expression at night than during the day in the retina and optic tectum. Seasonal MT1 expression was characterized by higher mRNA levels in spring and autumn equinoxes for the retina, and in winter and summer solstices for the optic tectum. An almost similar expression profile was found for MT2, but differences were less conspicuous. No day-night differences in MT1 and MT2 expression were observed in the pituitary but a seasonal variation was detected, being mRNA levels higher in summer for both receptors. Mel1c expression did not exhibit significant day-night variation in retina and optic tectum but showed seasonal variations, with higher transcript levels in summer (optic tectum) and autumn (retina). Our results suggest that day-night and seasonal variations in melatonin receptor expression could also be mediating circadian and circannual rhythms in sole.

Melatonin receptors in brain areas and ocular tissues of the teleost Tinca tinca: characterization and effect of temperature

The aim of the present study was to characterize the central melatonin receptors in brain areas and ocular tissues of the teleost Tinca tinca. We investigated the temperature-dependence of 2-iodo-melatonin ([(125)I]Mel) binding in the optic tectum-tegmentum area and the neural retina. The binding of [(125)I]Mel showed a widespread distribution in brain and ocular tissues, with the highest density in the optic tectum-thalamus and the lowest in hindbrain. The [(125)I]Mel affinity was similar in all the studied tissues, and it was on the order of the low pM range. Saturation, kinetic and pharmacological studies showed the presence of a unique MT(1)-like melatonin binding site. In addition, the non-hydrolysable GTP analog, the GTPgammaS, and sodium cations induced a specific binding decrease in the optic tectum and neural retina, suggesting that such melatonin binding sites in the tench are coupled to G protein. Thus, these melatonin binding sites in optic tectum and neural retina fulfil the requirements of a real hormone receptor, the specific binding is rapid, saturable, and reversible, and is inhibited by GTP analogs. Additionally, a clear effect of temperature on such central melatonin receptors was found. Temperature did not modify the B(max) and K(d), but the kinetics of [(125)I]Mel binding resulted in a highly thermosensitive process in both tissues. Both association and dissociation rates (K(+1) and K(-1)) significantly increased with assay temperature (15-30 degrees C), but the K(d) constant (estimated as K(-1)/K(+1)) remained unaltered. In conclusion, this high thermal dependence of the melatonin binding to its receptors in the tench central nervous system supports the conclusion that temperature plays a key role in melatonin signal transduction in fish.

Expression of the melatonin receptor Mel1c in neural tissues of the reef fish Siganus guttatus

The golden rabbitfish, Siganus guttatus, is a reef fish exhibiting a restricted lunar-related rhythm in behavior and reproduction. Here, to understand the circadian rhythm of this lunar-synchronized spawner, a melatonin receptor subtype-Mel(1c)-was cloned. The full-length Mel(1c) melatonin receptor cDNA comprised 1747 bp with a single open reading frame (1062 bp) that encodes a 353-amino acid protein, which included 7 presumed transmembrane domains. Real-time PCR revealed high Mel(1c) mRNA expression in the retina and brain but not in the peripheral tissues. When the fish were reared under light/dark (LD 12:12) conditions, Mel(1c) mRNA in the retina and brain was expressed with daily variations and increased during nighttime. Similar variations were noted under constant conditions, suggesting that Mel(1c) mRNA expression is regulated by the circadian clock system. Daily variations of Mel(1c) mRNA expression with a peak at zeitgeber time (ZT) 12 were observed in the cultured pineal gland under LD 12:12. Exposure of the cultured pineal gland to light at ZT17 resulted in a decrease in Mel(1c) mRNA expression. When light was obstructed at ZT5, the opposite effect was obtained. These results suggest that light exerts certain effects on Mel(1c) mRNA expression directly or indirectly through melatonin actions.

Diurnal and circadian regulation of a melatonin receptor, MT1, in the golden rabbitfish, Siganus guttatus

The golden rabbitfish Siganus guttatus is a reef fish with a restricted lunar-synchronized spawning rhythmicity and releases gametes simultaneously around the first quarter moon period during the spawning season. In order to understand the molecular aspects of the "circa" rhythms in this species, the full-length melatonin receptor (MT1) cDNA was cloned, and its diurnal/circadian regulation was examined. The full-length MT1 cDNA (1257 bp) contained an open reading frame that encodes a protein of 350 amino acids; this protein is highly homologous to MT1 of nonmammalian species. A high expression of MT1 mRNA with a day-night difference was observed in the whole brain, retina, liver, and kidney. When diurnal variations in MT1 mRNA expression in the retina and whole brain were examined using real-time quantitative RT-PCR, an increase in the mRNA expression was observed during nighttime in both tissues under conditions of light/dark, constant darkness, and constant light. This suggests that MT1 mRNA expression is under circadian regulation. The expression of MT1 mRNA in the cultured pineal gland also showed diurnal variations with high expression levels during nighttime; this suggests that the increased expression level observed in the whole brain is partially of pineal origin. Alternation of light conditions in the pineal gland cultures resulted in the changes in melatonin release into the culture medium as well as MT1 mRNA expression in the pineal gland. The present results suggest that melatonin and its receptors play an important role in the exertion of daily and circadian variations in the neural tissues.

Melatonin receptor of a reef fish with lunar-related rhythmicity: cloning and daily variations

Melatonin receptors are expressed in neural and peripheral tissues and mediate melatonin actions on the regulation of circadian rhythms in various species. For overall understanding of 'circa' rhythms in the golden rabbitfish, Siganus guttatus, which exhibits restricted lunar-related rhythms and spawns synchronously around the first quarter moon, the aim of the present study was to clone a melatonin receptor (Mel(lb)) cDNA and examine daily variations of Mel(lb) mRNA expression in certain tissues of the rabbitfish. The full-length Mel(lb) cDNA (1808 bp) contained an open reading frame to encode a protein with a length of 354 amino acids, which was highly homologous to a protein of nonmammalian species. Northern blot analysis showed transcripts of Mel(lb) in the brain and retina. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis also revealed expression of Mel(lb) in all tissues tested. Significantly high expression of the gene during daytime was evident in the liver and kidney. When the expression of Mel(lb) was examined in the brain and retina under conditions of light/dark cycles or constant darkness, daily and circadian variations of gene expression with two increases during daytime and nighttime for the brain and a single increase during nighttime for the retina were recognized. Moreover, daily variations in the expression of Mel(lb) were observed in the cultured pineal gland. These results suggest that the melatonin receptor plays a role in integration of melatonin actions in various tissues and that daily variations of Mel(lb) in the neural tissues may be related to regulation of circadian clock.

Changes in melatonin binding sites under artificial light–dark, constant light and constant dark conditions in the masu salmon brain

To test whether the affinity (Kd) and total binding capacity (Bmax) of melatonin receptors exhibit daily and circadian changes in teleost fish whose melatonin secretion is not regulated by intra-pineal clocks, we examined the changes in melatonin binding sites in the brains of underyearling masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou under artificial light-dark (LD), constant light (LL) and constant dark (DD) conditions. In Experiment 1, fish were reared under a long (LD 16:8) or short (LD 8:16) photoperiod for 69 days. Blood and brains were sampled eight times at 3 h intervals. Plasma melatonin levels were high during the dark phase and low during the light phase in both photoperiodic groups. The Bmax exhibited no daily variations. Although the Kd slightly, but significantly, changed under LD 8:16, this may be of little physiological significance. In Experiment 2, fish reared under LD 12:12 for 27 days were exposed to LL or DD from the onset of the dark phase under LD 12:12. Blood and brains were sampled 13 times at 4 h intervals for two complete 24 h cycles. Plasma melatonin levels were constantly high in the DD group and low in the LL group. No significant differences were observed in the Kd and the Bmax between the two groups, and the Kd and the Bmax exhibited no circadian variation either in the LL or DD groups. These results indicate that light conditions have little effect on melatonin binding sites in the masu salmon brain.

Day–night specific binding of 2-[125I]Iodomelatonin and melatonin content in gill, small intestine and kidney of three fish species

Some of melatonin's (Mel) well-established physiological effects are mediated via high-affinity cell-membrane receptors belonging to the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors. Specific binding of ligand 2-[(125)I]iodomelatonin, using membrane preparations from osmoregulatory tissues of flounder, rainbow trout and sea bream, together with Mel concentrations in the tissues and plasma were studied. The kidney, gill and small intestine samples were collected during the day and at night. The dissociation constants (K (d)) and maximal binding densities (B (max)) were calculated for each tissue at 11:00 and 23:00 h. The binding sites with K (d) values in the tissues in the picomolar range indicated the high affinity. K (d) and B (max) values were tissue- and species-dependent. The GTP analogue [Guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate)] treatment significantly reduced the B (max) value, indicating that the 2-[(125)I]iodomelatonin-binding sites are probably coupled to a G-protein. No daily variations in K (d) and B (max) values were observed. These are the first studies of the presence of 2-[(125)I]iodomelatonin-binding sites in the small intestine, kidney tubule and gill of fish. The data strongly suggest new potential targets for Mel action and the influence of Mel on water/ion balance in fish. The intestine seems to be a site of Mel synthesis and/or an active accumulation of the hormone.

Binding characteristics and daily rhythms of melatonin receptors are distinct in the retina and the brain areas of the European sea bass retina (Dicentrarchus labrax)

Melatonin is synthesized, with a circadian rhythm, in the pineal organ of vertebrates, high levels being produced during the scotophase and low levels during the photophase. The retina also produces melatonin, although in the case of the European sea bass, its secretion pattern appears to be inverted. In the study described here, radioreceptor assay techniques were used to characterize the melatonin binding sites, their regional distribution and their daily variations. Brain and retina membrane preparations were used in all the binding assays and 2-[125I]iodomelatonin ([125I]Mel) as radioligand at 25 degrees C. The specific binding of [125I]Mel was seen to be saturable, reversible, specific and of high affinity. In all the tissues assayed, the power of the ligands to inhibit [125I]Mel binding decreased in the following order: melatonin>>4-P-PDOT>luzindole> or =N-acetylserotonin, which points to the presence of Mel1-like receptors. The inhibition curves of 4-P-PDOT suggested the presence of two different binding sites in the brain areas, but only one type of site of low affinity in the neural retina. No daily variations in [125I]Mel binding capacity (Bmax) or affinity (Kd) were detected in the brain areas, while a clear rhythm in Kd melatonin receptor affinity and Bmax binding capacity was observed in the retina. Kd and Bmax retinal rhythms were out of phase with the lowest Kd and the highest Bmax occurring at scotophase. This result suggests that retinal melatonin is a paracrine factor able to control receptor desensitization during photophase when ocular melatonin is higher in this species.

Melatonin binding sites in the brain of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)

Characteristics, day-night changes, guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTPgammaS) modulation, and localization of melatonin binding sites in the brain of a marine teleost, European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax, were studied by radioreceptor assay using 2-[(125)I]iodomelatonin as a radioligand. The specific binding to the sea bass brain membranes was rapid, stable, saturable and reversible. The radioligand binds to a single class of receptor site with the affinity (Kd) of 9.3 +/-0.6 pM and total binding capacity (Bmax) of 39.08 +/-0.86 fmol/mg protein (mean+/-SEM, n=4) at mid-light under light-dark (LD) cycles of 12:12. Day-night changes were observed neither in the Kd nor in the Bmax under LD 12:12. Treatment with GTPgammaS significantly increased the Kd and decreased the Bmax both at mid-light and mid-dark. The binding sites were highly specific for 2-phenylmelatonin, 2-iodomelatonin, melatonin, and 6-chloromelatonin. Distribution of melatonin binding sites in the sea bass brain was uneven: The Bmax was determined to be highest in mesencephalic optic tectum-tegmentum and hypothalamus, intermediate in telencephalon, cerebellum-vestibulolateral lobe and medulla oblongata-spinal cord, and lowest in olfactory bulbs with the Kd in the low picomolar range. These results indicate that melatonin released from the pineal organ and/or retina plays neuromodulatory roles in the sea bass brain via G protein-coupled melatonin receptors.

Daily variations in melatonin binding sites in the masu salmon brain

Daily variations in melatonin binding sites in the brain of underyearling masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou were examined by radioreceptor assay using 2-[125I]iodomelatonin as the radioligand. Fish were reared under a natural photoperiod in July and sampled eight times at 3 h intervals from 12:00 to 09:00 h. Plasma melatonin levels showed robust daily rhythms in both precocious males and immature females, with high and low levels during night and day, respectively. The affinity (Kd) and density (Bmax) of melatonin binding sites in the brain also showed similar variations. There were significant positive correlations between the plasma melatonin levels and the Kd or the Bmax in immature females and between the Kd and Bmax values in both precocious males and immature females. These results indicate that melatonin binding sites in the brain showed daily variations under a natural photoperiod in masu salmon.

Circadian variations of melatonin binding sites in the goldfish brain

Daily and circadian variations in melatonin binding sites in the brain of goldfish (Carassius auratus) were examined by radioreceptor assay. Under light-dark cycles of 12:12 h, the density (B(max)) of melatonin binding sites in the brain exhibited daily variations with a peak and a trough seen around the light offset and 2 h before light onset, respectively. The affinity (K(d)) exhibited no variation. The rhythm in the B(max) persisted even under constant darkness with higher levels during the late subjective-day. These results indicate that the density of melatonin binding sites in the goldfish brain is regulated by the circadian clock.

Characterization and maturational differences of melatonin binding sites in the masu salmon brain

To obtain a better understanding of the roles of melatonin in the mediation of photoperiodic signaling, we have examined the pharmacological characteristics, guanine nucleotide modulation, and maturational differences of melatonin binding sites in the brain of masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou by radioreceptor assay using 2-[125I]iodomelatonin as the radioligand. The specific binding of 2-[125I]iodomelatonin was rapid, stable, saturable, and reversible. Saturation experiments demonstrated that 2-[125I]iodomelatonin binds to a single class of receptor sites with an affinity constant (K(d)) of 6.3+/-0.5 pM and a total binding capacity (B(max)) of 15.18+/-0.22 fmol/mg protein in underyearling precocious males in July. Competition experiments revealed that the binding sites are highly specific for melatonin and related analogues. Treatment with guanosine 5(')-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) significantly reduced the specific binding, indicating that melatonin binding sites in the masu salmon brain are coupled to G protein. Significant differences were seen in B(max), but not K(d), among the fish groups differing in maturity. In the underyearling fish in July, the B(max) of precocious males and immature males was significantly higher than that of immature females. Then, the B(max) of precocious males decreased in October, when the fish spermiated. In the 2-year-old fish, B(max) was significantly higher in spermiating males than ovulated females. These results indicate that melatonin plays neuromodulatory roles in the central nervous system through specific receptors. Furthermore, gonadal maturation affects the density of melatonin binding sites in the masu salmon brain by an unknown mechanism.

Daily and circadian variations in 2-[125I]-iodomelatonin binding sites in the pike brain (Esox lucius)

The fish pineal organ, through its 24 h rhythmic release of melatonin, acts as a transducer of the photoperiod, influencing different physiological functions (e.g. reproduction, growth). We have investigated the binding of 2-[125I]iodomelatonin to whole brain membrane preparations from pikes (Esox lucius L., teleost) maintained for 24-48 h under different photoperiodic conditions. Specific binding was stable, reversible, saturable and sensitive to the presence of a GTP analogue. Scatchard analysis revealed one class of binding sites. Displacement experiments suggested the presence of two components with affinities in the femtomolar and nanomolar range of concentrations, respectively. The Bmax exhibited monophasic nycthemeral variations, with higher values at the light-to-dark transition (34.0 +/- 4.5 fmol/mg protein) and low values during the second half of night (10.0 +/- 1.0 fmol/mg protein). Under the same conditions, the KD exhibited biphasic variations: values were low during daytime and at the middle of the dark phase (approximately 100 pM); they were high at the beginning (approximately 225 pM) and at the end (approximately 330 pM) of the night. These variations were maintained under constant light (LL) and constant darkness (DD). Thus, the variations in the number and affinity of the melatonin binding sites were controlled by circadian oscillators, synchronized by the photoperiod. The nature of these oscillators is not known. Therefore, in fish, we suggest that the photodependent effects of melatonin result from the circadian variations of both its production by the pineal and its binding sites in the brain.