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Omena J, Izar P. Ontogenesis of sociability of wild immature capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus): Sex more than personality explains interindividual variation. Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23533. [PMID: 37394768 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Sociability is a fundamental trait that social animals need to survive and reproduce in societies. Sociability predicts how an individual can consistently interact with its conspecifics across time and situations. By studying capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus), a neotropical primate with complex social behavior and high cognitive capacity, our research aims to analyze the development of the social axis of personality of immature individuals, from birth to the third year of life. We studied wild monkeys belonging to a group with infants, juveniles, and adults of both sexes that inhabits northeastern Brazil. We analyzed the behavior of 12 immature capuchins (6 males and 6 females) in 94 h of videos recorded weekly from birth until 36 months, through daily focal sampling. We verified whether there was intraindividual consistency throughout development by fitting regression models for the effect of age on initiating affiliative social behaviors, controlling for monkey identity and sex. Our results indicate that the individuals of this study exhibit high variation in the initiation of behaviors at the beginning of infancy; there was low repeatability and high intra-individual variation during the first 3 years of life of these individuals, indicating that the social personality is not consolidated in this period. Immature females were more sociable than immature males. Therefore, differences in sociability in early life of bearded capuchin monkeys are best explained by sex rather than personality. We suggest that the high initial behavioral variation in the social axis of personality allows for plasticity influenced by the environment throughout development. The high sociability of females in infancy may be related to female philopatry and their high sociability in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Omena
- Institute of Psychology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Izar
- Institute of Psychology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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2
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Iki S, Kutsukake N. Play face in Japanese macaques reflects the sender’s play motivation. Anim Cogn 2022; 26:849-859. [PMID: 36482118 PMCID: PMC10066171 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01730-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAnimals often initiate social interactions by exchanging signals. Especially when initiating amicable interactions, signaling one’s friendly stance toward others in advance may be important to avoid being misunderstood as having hostile intentions. We used data on dyadic play fighting in a group of Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata, to examine the function of “play face” at the opening of a play session. We found no support for the previously proposed hypothesis that play face expression is likelier before entering risky situations (e.g., before gaining an undue advantage over the partner) to avoid being misunderstood. The results showed that play face expression was likelier in male juveniles before initiating play with other males than in females before initiating play with males or other females and that juveniles were likelier to express play face before initiating play with others closer in age. As male Japanese macaques play more frequently than females, and juveniles prefer to play with individuals closer in age, play face expression before play initiation may reflect the individual’s motivation for subsequent play interactions. This interpretation is supported by our observation that play bouts lasted longer when initiated with bidirectional play face by both participants than when initiated without play face. We also argued that since there was no tendency that play face was likelier to be expressed toward individuals with low play propensity (e.g., females) or infrequent partners to play with (e.g., individuals more distant in age), Japanese macaques may not tactically deploy this signal to recruit reluctant partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakumi Iki
- Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior, Kyoto University, Aichi, Japan.
- Research Center for Integrative Evolutionary Science, Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Sokendai, Kanagawa, Japan.
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Nobuyuki Kutsukake
- Research Center for Integrative Evolutionary Science, Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Sokendai, Kanagawa, Japan
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3
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A systematic review of sex differences in rough and tumble play across non-human mammals. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03260-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
It is widely believed that juvenile male mammals typically engage in higher rates of rough and tumble play (RTP) than do females, in preparation for adult roles involving intense physical competition between males. The consistency of this sex difference across diverse mammalian species has, however, not yet been systematically investigated, limiting our current understanding of its possible adaptive function. This review uses narrative synthesis to (i) evaluate the ubiquity of male-biased RTP across non-human mammals, (ii) identify patterns of variation within and between taxonomic groups, and (iii) propose possible predictors of variation in these differences, including methodological and socio-ecological factors, for investigation by future studies. We find that most species studied do exhibit higher rates or RTP in males than females, while female-biased RTP is rare. Sex differences are smaller and less consistent than expected, with many studies finding similar rates of RTP in males and females. We identify multiple potential socio-ecological predictors of variation in sex differences in RTP, such as intrasexual competition and dietary niche. However, variation is not strongly phylogenetically patterned, suggesting that methodological and environmental factors, such as sample size and play partner availability, are important to consider in future comparative analyses.
Significance statement
Rough and tumble play (RTP) is thought to be vital for developing physical skills necessary for aggressive competition in adulthood, explaining an apparently widespread sex difference in RTP in mammals whereby immature males are more likely to engage in this behaviour than females. However, no prior study has systematically investigated the extent to which a male bias in RTP is consistent across diverse mammalian species. We find that although RTP is commonly male biased, findings were highly variable both within- and between-species, and equal participation in RTP by males and females is more common than widely assumed. Our review suggests several potential predictors of variation in sex differences in RTP, particularly levels of intrasexual competition in both males and females. However, our findings also suggest the importance of considering methodological in addition to socio-ecological factors for future research.
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Effects of Mother’s Dominance Hierarchy on the Development of Social Relationships among Immature Tibetan Macaques. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12070904. [PMID: 35405893 PMCID: PMC8996867 DOI: 10.3390/ani12070904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary In this study, we explored the role of females’ social ranks on social behaviors among immature Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana). The results suggest that females’ social ranks affected their offspring’s social play and grooming during the juvenile and adolescent periods, but not the infancy period. The present study provides new insight into understanding the effects of the female dominance hierarchy on the development of social relationships among immature offspring in nonhuman primates. Abstract During a relatively long period of growth, immature individuals rely on their mothers to obtain nutrition, and a good environment for learning social skills needed to cope with complex environments in adulthood. In this study, we collected the behavioral data of Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) to investigate the effects of females’ social rank on the development of social relationships among their immature offspring from November to June 2021. The results show that there was no difference in the rate/type of social play and grooming among infants. However, among juveniles and adolescents, the higher their mother’s social rank, the higher the rate of social play they participated in, and the more aggressive play they engaged in. Immatures with high-ranking mothers initiated more social play among each other. A similar pattern of playmates was found among juveniles/adolescents with middle-ranking and low-ranking mothers. We also found that immatures preferred immatures with higher-ranking mothers as grooming mates and initiated more grooming with immatures with higher-ranking mothers than with those with lower-ranking mothers. Our study suggests that females’ social ranks affect the development of social relationships among their immature offspring. In despotic nonhuman primates, this indicates that the mother’s dominance hierarchy would directly or indirectly influence the processes of participating in social interactions and choosing partnerships among immature individuals with age (i.e., infancy, juvenile, and adolescent periods).
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Iki S, Kutsukake N. Victims of Play Escalation Rank Below Aggressors in Japanese Macaques (Macaca fuscata). INT J PRIMATOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-022-00282-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Face-to-face configuration in Japanese macaques functions as a platform to establish mutual engagement in social play. Anim Cogn 2021; 24:1179-1189. [PMID: 33779867 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01508-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A face-to-face configuration and eye-to-eye contact are considered a basis for intersubjectivity, as they create a situation in which interactants are mutually attentive. Studies in humans have shown that the face-to-face configuration establishes active engagement by interactants in subsequent interactions, but it is not clear whether a similar function exists in non-human animals. Using data from a group of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), this study compared dyadic play fighting sessions preceded and not preceded by a face-to-face configuration. During play fighting, players compete to gain an advantage over their playmates by attacking them unilaterally (i.e., attacking them without being attacked or pinning them to the ground). Defining the inter-player asymmetry of active engagement in play in terms of the difference in the duration of each individual's advantage over the other, we found that asymmetry was lower in play bouts with a face-to-face beginning than in play bouts without one. Additionally, in play bouts not preceded by a face-to-face configuration, individuals who faced their partner at the onset of play unilaterally attacked their partner for a significantly longer duration than did those who did not face their partner at the onset of play. Conversely, in play bouts preceded by a face-to-face configuration, there was no difference in the duration of unilateral attacks. Overall, our results indicated that the face-to-face configuration in Japanese macaques functions as a platform to establish mutual engagement by interactors and enhances symmetry within play interaction.
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Sex-Specific Variation of Social Play in Wild Immature Tibetan Macaques, Macaca thibetana. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11030805. [PMID: 33805653 PMCID: PMC7998643 DOI: 10.3390/ani11030805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Social play among immature individuals has been well-documented across a wide range of mammalian species. It represents a substantial part of the daily behavioral repertoire during immature periods, and it is essential for acquiring an appropriate set of motor, cognitive, and social skills. In this study, we found that infant Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) exhibited similar patterns of social play between males and females, juvenile males engaged more aggressive play than juvenile females, and juvenile females engaged more affiliative play than juvenile males. Our results provided more evidence to understand the functional differences of social play in immature nonhuman primates. Abstract Theories proposed to explain social play have centered on its function in establishing social relationships critical for adulthood, its function in developing motor skills needed to survive, and promoting cognitive development and social learning. In this study, we compared variations in social play among infant and juvenile male and female Macaca thibetana. Given that this species is characterized by female philopatry and male dispersal, we hypothesized that immature females use social play as a mechanism to develop bonds that persist through adulthood whereas immature males use play to develop social skills needed to successfully enter new groups. The results indicated that social play steadily increased during the infant period and peaked at approximately 12 months of age. There were no significant differences in the frequency or types of social play exhibited between infant males and infant females. During the juvenile period, however, social play was found to decrease with age, with males engaging in social play more frequently than juvenile females. Moreover, whereas juvenile males engaged in more aggressive forms of play, juvenile females engaged in more affiliative forms of play. In addition, juvenile females engaged in higher rates of grooming than juvenile males. These results provide evidence of sex-specific differences and imply the functional variation of social play in Tibetan macaques, with immature males using social play to develop skills needed to enter and enhanced their dominance rank in a new social group and immature females using social play to develop long-term same-sex social bonds in their natal group.
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Face-to-face opening phase in Japanese macaques' social play enhances and sustains participants' engagement in subsequent play interaction. Anim Cogn 2019; 23:149-158. [PMID: 31720883 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01325-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
A face-to-face "opening phase" in human interaction serves as a platform for the interactants to initiate and manage their interaction collaboratively. This study investigated whether, as is the case in humans, a face-to-face opening phase in animal interaction serves to manage a subsequent interaction and establish interactants' engagement. We compared the dyadic play fighting of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) initiated with and without a face-to-face opening phase. Our observations showed that play sessions with a face-to-face opening phase lasted longer than did sessions without one. Furthermore, our results indicate that facing toward playmates was a sign of interactants' engagement. In sessions with a face-to-face opening phase, both players were likely to gain an advantage over their playmates, whereas in sessions without such an opening phase, only an individual who unidirectionally faced toward another individual who looked away when play began was likely to maintain an advantage over a long period. Our findings demonstrate that a face-to-face opening phase has a socio-cognitive function to establish and sustain interactants' social engagement during subsequent interaction not only in humans but also in Japanese macaques.
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10
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Amici F, Kulik L, Langos D, Widdig A. Growing into adulthood—a review on sex differences in the development of sociality across macaques. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2623-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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11
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Meredith S. Sex-Typed Social Development in Lemur catta. Folia Primatol (Basel) 2018; 89:224-239. [DOI: 10.1159/000487433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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12
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Shimada M, Sueur C. Social play among juvenile wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) strengthens their social bonds. Am J Primatol 2017; 80. [PMID: 29194704 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Social play and grooming are typical affiliative interactions for many primate species, and are thought to have similar biological functions. However, grooming increases with age, whereas social play decreases. We proposed the hypothesis that both social grooming and social play in juveniles strengthen their social bonds in daily activities. We carried out field research on the social relationships among juvenile wild Japanese macaques in a troop in Kinkazan, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, from fall 2007 to spring 2008 to investigate this hypothesis. We evaluated three relationships among juveniles, play indices (PI), grooming indices (GI), and 3-m-proximity indices (3mI) of each dyad (i.e., interacting pair), and compared these social networks based on the matrices of the indices. The play and grooming networks were correlated with the association network throughout the two research periods. The multiple network level measurements of the play network, but not the grooming network, resembled those of the association network. Using a causal step approach, we showed that social play and grooming interactions in fall seem to predict associations in the following spring, controlling for the PI and GI matrix in spring, respectively. Social play and grooming for each juvenile were negatively correlated. The results partially support our predictions; therefore, the hypothesis that the biological function of social play among immature Japanese macaques is to strengthen their social bonds in the near future and develop their social life appears to be correct. For juvenile macaques, social play, rather than grooming, functions as an important social mechanism to strengthen affiliative relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Shimada
- Department of Animal Sciences, Teikyo University of Science, Uenohara, Yamanashi, Japan
| | - Cédric Sueur
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC UMR 7178, Strasbourg, France
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13
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Lonsdorf EV. Sex differences in nonhuman primate behavioral development. J Neurosci Res 2017; 95:213-221. [PMID: 27870433 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in behavior and developmental trajectories in human children are of great interest to researchers in a variety of fields, and a persistent topic of discussion and debate is the relative contribution of biological vs. social influences to such differences. Given the potentially large effects of cultural and social influences on human child development, nonhuman primates are important model species for investigating the biological and evolutionary roots of sex differences in human development. This Mini-Review briefly summarizes the existing literature on sex-biased behavior toward infant nonhuman primates by mothers and other social partners, followed by a review of findings on sex differences (or lack thereof) in primate behavioral development from a variety of species in wild and naturalistic settings. These include differences in physical and social development, including play, grooming, and object manipulation patterns, as well as nursing and the development of foraging behavior. The Mini-Review concludes by providing potential avenues for future research. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth V Lonsdorf
- Department of Psychology and Biological Foundations of Behavior Program, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania
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Does behavioral flexibility contribute to successful play among juvenile rhesus macaques? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-017-2377-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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15
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Sex Differences in the Development of Aggressive Behavior in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta). INT J PRIMATOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-015-9853-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Kulik L, Amici F, Langos D, Widdig A. Sex Differences in the Development of Social Relationships in Rhesus Macaques ( Macaca mulatta). INT J PRIMATOL 2015; 36:353-376. [PMID: 25983360 PMCID: PMC4430863 DOI: 10.1007/s10764-015-9826-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Several studies have documented the importance of social bonding for the enhancement of individual fitness. However, little is known about how social relationships develop through ontogeny, and whether their development follows the same trajectory in males and females. Here we analyzed affiliative interactions (proximity, social grooming, play) combined with demographic and genetic data in semi-free-ranging rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) on Cayo Santiago over their first 4 yr of life (from birth to sexual maturation) to understand how these interactions change through development in both sexes. Generalized linear mixed models revealed that social behaviors mostly followed different developmental trajectories in males and females and were highly dependent on the social context. In particular, sex differences in social behavior varied through development depending on the partner's sex and age. Females engaged in more social interactions than males, especially with other females, and were more involved in grooming around the time of maturation. In contrast, males interacted more with males and age peers, especially around maturation. Sex differences in social behavior varied through development, but also depended on rank, partner's rank, and kin line, although not consistently. High-ranking individuals, especially older females, were generally preferred as social partners. Moreover, both male and female individuals interacted mostly with maternal kin, although males also preferred paternal kin over nonkin. Importantly, most developmental changes in sociality happened when individuals were ca. 2 yr old, suggesting that this might be a milestone in the development of sociality in rhesus macaques. The only notable exception to this pattern was play, which was more pronounced in males from the beginning of their lives. We propose that play might serve as a trigger of sex differences in social behavior, with sex differences emerging early in development and increasing through time as males and females gradually grow into their adult social roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Kulik
- Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany. Institute of Biology, Faculty of Bioscience, Pharmacy and Psychology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Federica Amici
- Institute of Biology, Faculty of Bioscience, Pharmacy and Psychology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany. Department of Comparative and Developmental Psychology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Doreen Langos
- Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany. Institute of Biology, Faculty of Bioscience, Pharmacy and Psychology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anja Widdig
- Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103 Leipzig, Germany. Institute of Biology, Faculty of Bioscience, Pharmacy and Psychology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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Meredith SL. Comparative perspectives on human gender development and evolution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 156 Suppl 59:72-97. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Shimada M, Sueur C. The importance of social play network for infant or juvenile wild chimpanzees at Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Am J Primatol 2014; 76:1025-36. [PMID: 24990324 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Revised: 03/12/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Along with social grooming and food sharing, social play is considered to be an affiliative interaction among wild chimpanzees. However, infant, juvenile, and adolescent animals engage in social play more frequently than adult animals, while other affiliative interactions occur more commonly between adults. We studied the social play of well-habituated and individually identified wild chimpanzees of the M group in Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania over two research periods in 2010 and 2011 (21 and 17 observation days, respectively). In both periods, most members of the M group, including adolescents and adults, took part in social play at least once. The degree centralities of the play network in infants, juveniles, and adolescents were significantly higher than those seen in adults. There was a significant and positive correlation between the total number of participations in social play and the degree centrality of play networks. Partial play networks and partial association networks consisting of individuals in same-age categories were significantly and positively correlated in infants and juveniles, although they were not correlated in adolescents or adults. These results suggest that infants, juveniles and adolescents who played frequently were more central in the group, whilst the adults who played infrequently were more peripheral. In addition, the overall structure of the social play network was stable over time. The frequency of participation in social play positively contributed to the development of affiliative social relationships within the chimpanzee group during the infant or juvenile period, but did not have the same effect during the adolescent and adult period. The social play network may allow individuals to develop the social techniques necessary to acquire a central position in a society and enable them to develop affiliative relationships during the infant or juvenile period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Shimada
- Department of Animal Sciences, Teikyo University of Science, Uenohara, Japan
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Palagi E. Social play in bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Implicationsfor natural social systems and interindividual relationships. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2006; 129:418-26. [PMID: 16323189 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
This study compares adult play behavior in the two Pan species in order to test the effects of phylogenetic closeness and the nature of social systems on play distribution. The social play (both with fertile and immature subjects) performed by adults did not differ between the two species. In contrast, in bonobos, play levels among fertile subjects were higher than in chimpanzees. Findings regarding levels of undecided conflicts (more frequent in bonobos) and formal submission displays (lacking in bonobos) confirm, in the two colonies under study, that bonobos exhibit "egalitarianism" more than chimpanzees. Some authors emphasized the importance of play-fighting for social assessment when relationships among individuals are not codified and structured according to rank-rules. Indeed, adult bonobos played more roughly than chimpanzees. Moreover, adult bonobos displayed the full play-face at a high frequency especially during rough play sessions, whereas in chimpanzees, the frequency of play signals was not affected by roughness of play. The frequency of social play among bonobo females was higher than in any other sex combinations, whereas no difference was found for chimpanzees. As a matter of fact, social play can be viewed as a balance between cooperation and competition. Among bonobo females, characterized by social competence and affiliation, social play might enhance their behavioral flexibility and increase their socially symmetrical relationships which, after all, are the basis for their egalitarian society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Palagi
- Centro Interdipartimentale Museo di Storia Naturale e del Territorio, Università di Pisa, 56011 Calci (Pisa), Italy.
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Machado CJ, Bachevalier J. Non-human primate models of childhood psychopathology: the promise and the limitations. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2003; 44:64-87. [PMID: 12553413 DOI: 10.1111/1469-7610.00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Although non-human primate models have been used previously to investigate the neurobiology of several sensory and cognitive developmental pathologies, they have been employed only sparingly to study the etiology of childhood psychopathologies for which deficits in social behavior and emotion regulation are major symptoms. Previous investigations of both adult human and non-human primates have indicated that primate social behavior and emotion are regulated by a complex neural network, in which the amygdala and orbital frontal cortex play major roles. Therefore, this review will provide information generated from the study of macaque monkeys regarding the timing of normal social and emotional behavior development, the normal pattern of anatomical and functional maturation of the amygdala and orbital frontal cortex, as well as information regarding the neural and behavioral effects of early perturbations of these two neural structures. We will also highlight 'critical periods' of macaque development, during which major refinements in the behavioral repertoire appear to coincide with significant neural maturation of the amygdala and/or orbital frontal cortex. The identification of these 'critical periods' may allow one to better predict the specific behavioral impairments likely to appear after neonatal damage to one or both of these neural areas at different time points during development. This experimental approach may provide a new and important way to inform and stimulate research on childhood psychopathologies, such as autism, schizophrenia and Williams syndrome, in which the development of normal social skills and emotional regulation is severely perturbed. Finally, the promise and limitations inherent to the use of non-human primate models of childhood psychopathology will be discussed.
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Maestripieri D, Ross SR. Sex differences in play among western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) infants: Implications for adult behavior and social structure. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2003; 123:52-61. [PMID: 14669236 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.10295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian play is believed to improve motor skills as well as facilitate the development of social relationships. Given the marked sexual dimorphism in gorilla body size and the role assumed by the male in protecting the group from conspecifics and predators, the motor-training hypothesis of play predicts that male infants should exhibit higher frequencies of social play than female infants, and that males should prefer to play with other males. Given that adult female gorillas are strongly attracted to adult breeding males and form only weak social bonds with unrelated adult females, the social-relationship hypothesis of play predicts that female infants should prefer to play with males. These hypotheses were tested in a 22-month study of 12 gorilla infants, aged between 0-5 years, living in three zoological parks in Chicago and Atlanta. Consistent with the hypotheses, male infants played more than female infants did, and both male and female infants preferred to play with males rather than with females. These findings suggest that sex differences in play in the great apes and other primates can be predicted by the characteristics of adult behavior and social structure above and beyond the patterns of sex-biased dispersal or coalition formation with same-sex kin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Maestripieri
- Institute for Mind and Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA.
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Nakamichi M. Proximity relationships within a birth cohort of immature Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) in a free-ranging group during the first four years of life. Am J Primatol 1996; 40:315-325. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-2345(1996)40:4<315::aid-ajp2>3.0.co;2-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/1995] [Accepted: 06/11/1996] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Bernstein IS, Judge PG, Ruehlmann TE. Sex differences in adolescent rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) Behavior. Am J Primatol 1993; 31:197-210. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.1350310305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/1992] [Revised: 03/30/1993] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Bernstein IS, Judge PG, Ruehlmann TE. Kinship, association, and social relationships in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Am J Primatol 1993; 31:41-53. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.1350310105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/1992] [Revised: 02/23/1993] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Eaton GG, Worlein JM, Glick BB. Sex differences in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata): effects of prenatal testosterone on juvenile social behavior. Horm Behav 1990; 24:270-83. [PMID: 2365304 DOI: 10.1016/0018-506x(90)90009-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess, in a nonhuman primate, the extent to which exposure to androgen during the prenatal period interacts with early social experience to affect the display of male or female patterns of behavior. Pregnant females from a large age-graded, heterosexual group of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) were implanted about the 40th day of gestation with Silastic packets of testosterone. The packets were removed on the 100th day of gestation, and the females were allowed to give birth in their outdoor corral. An unplanned procedural change, by the surgeon who did the implants, created two groups of prenatally androgenized females: a high-dose group (N = 3), and a low-dose group (N = 4). The anatomical differentiation of these groups differed in that the high-dose group had small penises and no vaginas while the low-dose group had enlarged clitorises and patent vaginas. The behavior of these two groups of females was compared with that of normal males (N = 6), prenatally androgenized males (N = 6), and normal females (N = 5) from birth to 2 years of age. There were no differences between treated and normal males, but there were sex differences between males and normal females in the frequency of mounting, playing, displaying, and grooming. The high-dose group of prenatally androgenized females differed from normal females on only one measure: increased frequency of mounting. The low-dose group mounted other juveniles more frequently than did the normal females, but the difference was not statistically significant. We concluded that mounting behavior was most sensitive to the prenatal hormone environment because it showed the largest sex difference in normal animals. Given the small sample sizes, within-group variability could have obscured possible hormonal effects on other behaviors where sex differences were less dramatic.
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Affiliation(s)
- G G Eaton
- Department of Reproductive Biology and Behavior, Oregon Regional Primate Research Center, Beaverton 97006
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Nakamichi M, Cho F, Minami T. Mother-infant interactions of wild-born, individually-caged cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) during the first 14 weeks of infant life. Primates 1990. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02380943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Nakamichi M. Sex differences in social development during the first 4 years in a free-ranging group of Japanese monkeys, Macaca fuscata. Anim Behav 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-3472(89)80106-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Glick BB, Eaton GG, Johnson DF, Worlein JM. Development of partner preferences in Japanese Macaques (Macaca fuscata): Effects of gender and kinship during the second year of life. INT J PRIMATOL 1986. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02693658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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