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Babington S, Tilbrook AJ, Maloney SK, Fernandes JN, Crowley TM, Ding L, Fox AH, Zhang S, Kho EA, Cozzolino D, Mahony TJ, Blache D. Finding biomarkers of experience in animals. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2024; 15:28. [PMID: 38374201 PMCID: PMC10877933 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-023-00989-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
At a time when there is a growing public interest in animal welfare, it is critical to have objective means to assess the way that an animal experiences a situation. Objectivity is critical to ensure appropriate animal welfare outcomes. Existing behavioural, physiological, and neurobiological indicators that are used to assess animal welfare can verify the absence of extremely negative outcomes. But welfare is more than an absence of negative outcomes and an appropriate indicator should reflect the full spectrum of experience of an animal, from negative to positive. In this review, we draw from the knowledge of human biomedical science to propose a list of candidate biological markers (biomarkers) that should reflect the experiential state of non-human animals. The proposed biomarkers can be classified on their main function as endocrine, oxidative stress, non-coding molecular, and thermobiological markers. We also discuss practical challenges that must be addressed before any of these biomarkers can become useful to assess the experience of an animal in real-life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Babington
- School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Alan J Tilbrook
- Centre for Animal Science, The Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, 4343, Australia
| | - Shane K Maloney
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Jill N Fernandes
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, 4343, Australia
| | - Tamsyn M Crowley
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, 3217, Australia
- Poultry Hub Australia, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2350, Australia
| | - Luoyang Ding
- School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Archa H Fox
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Song Zhang
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Elise A Kho
- Centre for Animal Science, The Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Daniel Cozzolino
- Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, The Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Timothy J Mahony
- Centre for Animal Science, The Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Dominique Blache
- School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia.
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China.
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Lyu Y, Huang Y, Shi G, Lei X, Li K, Zhou R, Bai L, Qin C. Transcriptome profiling of five brain regions in a 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of Parkinson's disease. CNS Neurosci Ther 2021; 27:1289-1299. [PMID: 34347369 PMCID: PMC8504527 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease, and its pathogenesis is unclear. Previous studies mainly focus on the lesions of substantia nigra (SN) and striatum (Str) in PD. However, lesions are not limited. The olfactory bulb (OB), subventricular zone (SVZ), and hippocampus (Hippo) are also affected in PD. AIM To reveal gene expression changes in the five brain regions (OB, SVZ, Str, SN, and Hippo), and to look for potential candidate genes and pathways that may be correlated with the pathogenesis of PD. MATERIALS AND METHODS We established control group and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) PD model group, and detected gene expressions in the five brain regions using RNA-seq and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). We further analyzed the RNA-seq data by bioinformatics. RESULTS We identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in all five brain regions. The DEGs were significantly enriched in the "dopaminergic synapse" and "retrograde endocannabinoid signaling," and Gi/o-GIRK is the shared cascade in the two pathways. We further identified Ephx2, Fam111a, and Gng2 as the potential candidate genes in the pathogenesis of PD for further studies. CONCLUSION Our study suggested that gene expressions change in the five brain regions following exposure to 6-OHDA. The "dopaminergic synapse," "retrograde endocannabinoid signaling," and Gi/o-GIRK may be the key pathways and cascade of the synaptic damage in 6-OHDA PD rats. Ephx2, Fam111a, and Gng2 may play critical roles in the pathogenesis of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Lyu
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences (ILAS), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) & Comparative Medical Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical Diseases, Beijing, China.,Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yiying Huang
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences (ILAS), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) & Comparative Medical Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Guiying Shi
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences (ILAS), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) & Comparative Medical Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Xuepei Lei
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences (ILAS), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) & Comparative Medical Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Keya Li
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences (ILAS), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) & Comparative Medical Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Ran Zhou
- Beijing City University, Beijing, China
| | - Lin Bai
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences (ILAS), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) & Comparative Medical Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Chuan Qin
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences (ILAS), Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) & Comparative Medical Center, Peking Union Medical College (PUMC), Beijing, China.,Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Critical Diseases, Beijing, China
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Malamas MS, Pavlopoulos S, Alapafuja SO, Farah SI, Zvonok A, Mohammad KA, West J, Perry NT, Pelekoudas DN, Rajarshi G, Shields C, Chandrashekhar H, Wood J, Makriyannis A. Design and Structure-Activity Relationships of Isothiocyanates as Potent and Selective N-Acylethanolamine-Hydrolyzing Acid Amidase Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2021; 64:5956-5972. [PMID: 33900772 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
N-Acylethanolamines are signaling lipid molecules implicated in pathophysiological conditions associated with inflammation and pain. N-Acylethanolamine acid amidase (NAAA) favorably hydrolyzes lipid palmitoylethanolamide, which plays a key role in the regulation of inflammatory and pain processes. The synthesis and structure-activity relationship studies encompassing the isothiocyanate pharmacophore have produced potent low nanomolar inhibitors for hNAAA, while exhibiting high selectivity (>100-fold) against other serine hydrolases and cysteine peptidases. We have followed a target-based structure-activity relationship approach, supported by computational methods and known cocrystals of hNAAA. We have identified systemically active inhibitors with good plasma stability (t1/2 > 2 h) and microsomal stability (t1/2 ∼ 15-30 min) as pharmacological tools to investigate the role of NAAA in inflammation, pain, and drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Spiro Pavlopoulos
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Shakiru O Alapafuja
- MAK Scientific LLC, 151 South Bedford Street, Burlington, Massachusetts 01803, United States
| | - Shrouq I Farah
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Alexander Zvonok
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Khadijah A Mohammad
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Jay West
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Nicholas Thomas Perry
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Dimitrios N Pelekoudas
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Girija Rajarshi
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Christina Shields
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Honrao Chandrashekhar
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Jodi Wood
- Center for Drug Discovery, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Alexandros Makriyannis
- Center for Drug Discovery and Departments of Chemistry and Chemical Biology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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4
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Sonti S, Tolia M, Duclos RI, Loring RH, Gatley SJ. Metabolic studies of synaptamide in an immortalized dopaminergic cell line. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2019; 141:25-33. [PMID: 30763677 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Synaptamide, the N-acylethanolamine of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is structurally similar to the endocannabinoid N-arachidonoylethanolamine, anandamide. It is an endogenous ligand at the orphan G-protein coupled receptor 110 (GPR110; ADGRF1), and induces neuritogenesis and synaptogenesis in hippocampal and cortical neurons, as well as neuronal differentiation in neural stem cells. PURPOSE Our goal was to characterize the metabolic fate (synthesis and metabolism) of synaptamide in a dopaminergic cell line using immortalized fetal mesencephalic cells (N27 cells). Both undifferentiated and differentiating N27 cells were used in this study in an effort to understand synaptamide synthesis and metabolism in developing and adult cells. METHODS Radiotracer uptake and hydrolysis assays were conducted in N27 cells incubated with [1-14C]DHA or with one of two radioisotopomers of synaptamide: [α,β-14C2]synaptamide and [1-14C-DHA]synaptamide. RESULTS Neither differentiated nor undifferentiated N27 cells synthesized synaptamide from radioactive DHA, but both rapidly incorporated radioactivity from exogenous synaptamide into membrane phospholipids, regardless of which isotopomer was used. Pharmacological inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) reduced formation of labeled phospholipids in undifferentiated but not differentiated cells. CONCLUSIONS In undifferentiated cells, synaptamide uptake and metabolism is driven by its enzymatic hydrolysis (fatty acid amide hydrolase; FAAH), but in differentiating cells, the process seems to be FAAH independent. We conclude that differentiated and undifferentiated N27 cells utilize synaptamide via different mechanisms. This observation could be extrapolated to how different mechanisms may be in place for synaptamide uptake and metabolism in developing and adult dopaminergic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa Sonti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, United States.
| | - Mansi Tolia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Richard I Duclos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Ralph H Loring
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Samuel J Gatley
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, United States
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5
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Scotter EL, Abood ME, Glass M. The endocannabinoid system as a target for the treatment of neurodegenerative disease. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:480-98. [PMID: 20590559 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00735.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The Cannabis sativa plant has been exploited for medicinal, agricultural and spiritual purposes in diverse cultures over thousands of years. Cannabis has been used recreationally for its psychotropic properties, while effects such as stimulation of appetite, analgesia and anti-emesis have lead to the medicinal application of cannabis. Indeed, reports of medicinal efficacy of cannabis can been traced back as far as 2700 BC, and even at that time reports also suggested a neuroprotective effect of the cultivar. The discovery of the psychoactive component of cannabis resin, Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta(9)-THC) occurred long before the serendipitous identification of a G-protein coupled receptor at which Delta(9)-THC is active in the brain. The subsequent finding of endogenous cannabinoid compounds, the synthesis of which is directed by neuronal excitability and which in turn served to regulate that excitability, further widened the range of potential drug targets through which the endocannabinoid system can be manipulated. As a result of this, alterations in the endocannabinoid system have been extensively investigated in a range of neurodegenerative disorders. In this review we examine the evidence implicating the endocannabinoid system in the cause, symptomatology or treatment of neurodegenerative disease. We examine data from human patients and compare and contrast this with evidence from animal models of these diseases. On the basis of this evidence we discuss the likely efficacy of endocannabinoid-based therapies in each disease context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma L Scotter
- Centre for Brain Research and Department of Pharmacology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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6
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Biology of endocannabinoid synthesis system. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2008; 89:112-9. [PMID: 19126434 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2008.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2008] [Revised: 11/20/2008] [Accepted: 12/02/2008] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids (endogenous ligands of cannabinoid receptors) exert diverse physiological and pathophysiological functions in animal tissues. N-Arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) are two representative endocannabinoids. Both the compounds are arachidonic acid-containing lipid molecules generated from membrane glycerophospholipids, but their biosynthetic pathways are totally different. Anandamide is principally formed together with other N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) in a two-step pathway, which is composed of Ca(2+)-dependent N-acyltransferase and N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine-hydrolyzing phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD). cDNA cloning of NAPE-PLD and subsequent analysis of its gene-disrupted mice led to the discovery of alternative pathways comprising multiple enzymes. As for the 2-AG biosynthesis, recent results, including cDNA cloning of diacylglycerol lipase and analyses of phospholipase Cbeta-deficient mice, demonstrated that these two enzymes are responsible for the in vivo formation of 2-AG functioning as a retrograde messenger in synapses. In this review article, we will focus on recent progress in the studies on the enzymes responsible for the endocannabinoid biosyntheses.
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7
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Degn M, Lambertsen KL, Petersen G, Meldgaard M, Artmann A, Clausen BH, Hansen SH, Finsen B, Hansen HS, Lund TM. Changes in brain levels of N-acylethanolamines and 2-arachidonoylglycerol in focal cerebral ischemia in mice. J Neurochem 2007; 103:1907-16. [PMID: 17868306 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04892.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) are bioactive lipids that can modulate inflammatory responses and protect neurons against glutamatergic excitotoxicity. We have used a model of focal cerebral ischemia in young adult mice to investigate the relationship between focal cerebral ischemia and endogenous NAEs. Over the first 24 h after induction of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion, we observed a time-dependent increase in all the investigated NAEs, except for anandamide. Moreover, we found an accumulation of 2-AG at 4 h that returned to basal level 12 h after induction of ischemia. Accumulation of NAEs did not depend on regulation of N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine-hydrolyzing phospholipase D or fatty acid amide hydrolase. Treatment with the fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB597 (cyclohexyl carbamic acid 3'-carbamoyl-biphenyl-3-yl ester; 1 mg/kg; i.p.) 1.5 h before arterial occlusion decreased the infarct volume in our model system. Our results suggest that NAEs and 2-AG may be involved in regulation of neuroprotection during focal cerebral ischemia in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matilda Degn
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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8
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Okamoto Y, Wang J, Morishita J, Ueda N. Biosynthetic Pathways of the Endocannabinoid Anandamide. Chem Biodivers 2007; 4:1842-57. [PMID: 17712822 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.200790155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Anandamide (=N-arachidonoylethanolamine) is the first discovered endocannabinoid, and belongs to the class of bioactive, long-chain N-acylethanolamines (NAEs). In animal tissues, anandamide is principally formed together with other NAEs from glycerophospholipid by two successive enzymatic reactions: 1) N-acylation of phosphatidylethanolamine to generate N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE) by Ca2+-dependent N-acyltransferase; 2) release of NAE from NAPE by a phosphodiesterase of the phospholipase D type (NAPE-PLD). Although these anandamide-synthesizing enzymes were poorly understood until recently, our cDNA cloning of NAPE-PLD in 2004 enabled molecular-biological approaches to the enzymes. NAPE-PLD is a member of the metallo-beta-lactamase family, which specifically hydrolyzes NAPE among glycerophospholipids, and appears to be constitutively active. Mutagenesis studies suggested that the enzyme functions through a mechanism similar to those of other members of the family. NAPE-PLD is widely expressed in animal tissues, including various regions in rat brain. Its expression level in the brain is very low at birth, and remarkably increases with development. Analysis of NAPE-PLD-deficient mice and other recent studies revealed the presence of NAPE-PLD-independent pathways for the anandamide formation. Furthermore, calcium-independent N-acyltransferase was discovered and characterized. In this article, we will review recent progress in the studies on these enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of anandamide and other NAEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuo Okamoto
- Department of Biochemistry, Kagawa University School of Medicine, 1750-1 Ikenobe, Miki, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan
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9
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Howlett AC, Mukhopadhyay S, Norford DC. Endocannabinoids and reactive nitrogen and oxygen species in neuropathologies. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2006; 1:305-16. [PMID: 18040807 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-006-9022-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2006] [Accepted: 05/16/2006] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Neuropathologies that affect our population include ischemic stroke and neurodegenerative diseases of immune origin, including multiple sclerosis. The endocannabinoid system in the brain, including agonists anandamide (arachidonyl ethanolamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, and the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, has been implicated in the pathophysiology of these disease states, and can be a target for therapeutic interventions. This review concentrates on cellular signal transduction pathways believed to be involved in the cellular damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allyn C Howlett
- Neuroscience of Drug Abuse Research Program, 208 Julius L. Chambers Biomedical/Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, 700 George Street, Durham, NC 27707, USA.
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10
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McCarty MF. Down-regulation of microglial activation may represent a practical strategy for combating neurodegenerative disorders. Med Hypotheses 2006; 67:251-69. [PMID: 16513287 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2005] [Accepted: 01/02/2006] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Chronic neurodegenerative disorders are characterized by activation of microglia in the affected neural pathways. Peroxynitrite, prostanoids, and cytokines generated by these microglia can potentiate the excitotoxicity that contributes to neuronal death and dysfunction in these disorders--both by direct effects on neurons, and by impairing the capacity of astrocytes to sequester and metabolize glutamate. This suggests a vicious cycle in which the death of neurons leads to microglial activation, which in turn potentiates neuronal damage. If this model is correct, measures which down-regulate microglial activation may have a favorable effect on the induction and progression of neurodegenerative disease, independent of the particular trigger or target involved in a given disorder. Consistent with this possibility, the antibiotic minocycline, which inhibits microglial activation, shows broad utility in rodent models of neurodegeneration. Other agents which may have potential in this regard include PPARgamma agonists, genistein, vitamin D, COX-2 inhibitors, statins (and possibly policosanol), caffeine, cannabinoids, and sesamin; some of these agents could also be expected to be directly protective to neurons threatened with excitotoxicity. To achieve optimal clinical outcomes, regimens which down-regulate microglial activation could be used in conjunction with complementary measures which address other aspects of excitotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark F McCarty
- Natural Alternatives International, 1185 Linda Vista Dr., San Marcos, CA 92078, USA.
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Walter L, Dinh T, Stella N. ATP induces a rapid and pronounced increase in 2-arachidonoylglycerol production by astrocytes, a response limited by monoacylglycerol lipase. J Neurosci 2005; 24:8068-74. [PMID: 15371507 PMCID: PMC6729797 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2419-04.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytoplasm of neural cells contain millimolar amounts of ATP, which flood the extracellular space after injury, activating purinergic receptors expressed by glial cells and increasing gliotransmitter production. These gliotransmitters, which are thought to orchestrate neuroinflammation, remain widely uncharacterized. Recently, we showed that microglial cells produce 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), an endocannabinoid known to prevent the propagation of harmful neuroinflammation, and that ATP increases this production by threefold at 2.5 min (Witting et al., 2004). Here we show that ATP increases 2-AG production from mouse astrocytes in culture, a response that is more rapid (i.e., significant within 10 sec) and pronounced (i.e., 60-fold increase at 2.5 min) than any stimulus-induced increase in endocannabinoid production reported thus far. Increased 2-AG production from astrocytes requires millimolar amounts of ATP, activation of purinergic P2X7 receptors, sustained rise in intracellular calcium, and diacylglycerol lipase activity. Furthermore, we show that astrocytes express monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL), the main hydrolyzing enzyme of 2-AG, the pharmacological inhibition of which potentiates the ATP-induced 2-AG production (up to 113-fold of basal 2-AG production at 2.5 min). Our results show that ATP greatly increases, and MGL limits, 2-AG production from astrocytes. We propose that 2-AG may function as a gliotransmitter, with MGL inhibitors potentiating this production and possibly restraining the propagation of harmful neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Walter
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-7280, USA
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12
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Di Marzo V, De Petrocellis L, Bisogno T. The biosynthesis, fate and pharmacological properties of endocannabinoids. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2005:147-85. [PMID: 16596774 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-26573-2_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The finding of endogenous ligands for cannabinoid receptors, the endocannabinoids, opened a new era in cannabinoid research. It meant that the biological role of cannabinoid signalling could be finally studied by investigating not only the pharmacological actions subsequent to stimulation of cannabinoid receptors by their agonists, but also how the activity of these receptors was regulated under physiological and pathological conditions by varying levels of the endocannabinoids. This in turn meant that the enzymes catalysing endocannabinoid biosynthesis and inactivation had to be identified and characterized, and that selective inhibitors of these enzymes had to be developed to be used as (1) probes to confirm endocannabinoid involvement in health and disease, and (2) templates for the design of new therapeutic drugs. This chapter summarizes the progress achieved in this direction during the 12 years following the discovery of the first endocannabinoid.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Di Marzo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, Via Campi Flegrei 34, Comprensorio Olivetti, Fabbricato 70, 80078 Pozzuoli (Napoli), Italy.
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Mauler F, Horváth E, De Vry J, Jäger R, Schwarz T, Sandmann S, Weinz C, Heinig R, Böttcher M. BAY 38-7271: a novel highly selective and highly potent cannabinoid receptor agonist for the treatment of traumatic brain injury. CNS DRUG REVIEWS 2004; 9:343-58. [PMID: 14647528 PMCID: PMC6741701 DOI: 10.1111/j.1527-3458.2003.tb00259.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the most common cause of mortality and morbidity in adults under 40 years of age in industrialized countries. Worldwide the incidence is increasing, about 9.5 million people are hospitalized per year due to TBI, and the death rate is estimated to be more than one million people per year. Recently BAY 38-7271 has been characterized as a structurally novel, selective and highly potent cannabinoid CB1/CB2 receptor agonist in vitro and in vivo with pronounced neuroprotective efficacy in a rat traumatic brain injury model, showing a therapeutic window of at least 5 h. Furthermore, neuroprotective efficacy was also found in models of transient and permanent occlusion of the middle cerebral artery and brain edema models as well. In this article we review the in vitro and in vivo pharmacology of BAY 38-7271, the results from acute and subacute toxicity studies, pharmacokinetics and drug metabolism in animals and healthy male volunteers. In phase I studies BAY 38-7271 was safe and well tolerated when administered by i.v. infusion for either 1 or 24 h. As the doses of BAY 38-7271 in animals needed for maximal neuroprotective efficacy were significantly lower than those inducing typical cannabinoid-like side effects, it is to be expected that the compound will offer a novel therapeutic approach with a favorable therapeutic window for the treatment of TBI or cerebral ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Mauler
- Bayer HealthCare PH-R-EU CNS, Aprather Weg 18a, D-42096 Wuppertal, Germany.
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Manzanares J, Urigüen L, Rubio G, Palomo T. Role of endocannabinoid system in mental diseases. Neurotox Res 2004; 6:213-24. [PMID: 15325960 DOI: 10.1007/bf03033223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade, a large number of studies using Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main active principle derivative of the marijuana plant, or cannabinoid synthetic derivatives have substantially contributed to advance the understanding of the pharmacology and neurobiological mechanisms produced by cannabinoid receptor activation. Cannabis has been historically used to relieve some of the symptoms associated with central nervous system disorders. Nowadays, there are anecdotal evidences for the use of cannabis in many patients suffering from multiple sclerosis or chronic pain. Following the historical reports of the use of cannabis for medicinal purposes, recent research has highlighted the potential of cannabinoids to treat a wide variety of clinical disorders. Some of these disorders that are being investigated are pain, motor dysfunctions or psychiatric illness. On the other hand, cannabis abuse has been related to several psychiatric disorders such as dependence, anxiety, depression, cognitive impairment, and psychosis. Considering that cannabis or cannabinoid pharmaceutical preparations may no longer be exclusively recreational drugs but may also present potential therapeutic uses, it has become of great interest to analyze the neurobiological and behavioral consequences of their administration. This review attempts to link current understanding of the basic neurobiology of the endocannabinoid system to novel opportunities for therapeutic intervention and its effects on the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Manzanares
- Servicio de Psiquiatría y Unidad de Investigación, Hospital 12 de Octubre, Edificio Materno-Infantil, Planta 6a, 613-A, Avenida de Córdoba s/n. 28041 Madrid, Spain.
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Segura Aguilar J, Kostrzewa RM. Neurotoxins and neurotoxic species implicated in neurodegeneration. Neurotox Res 2004; 6:615-30. [PMID: 15639792 DOI: 10.1007/bf03033456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Neurotoxins, in the general sense, represent novel chemical structures which when administered in vivo or in vitro, are capable of producing neuronal damage or neurodegeneration--with some degree of specificity relating to neuronal phenotype or populations of neurons with specific characteristics (i.e., receptor type, ion channel type, astrocyte-dependence, etc.). The broader term 'neurotoxin' includes this categorization but extends the term to include intra- or extracellular mediators involved in the neurodegenerative event, including necrotic and apoptotic factors. Moreover, as it is recognized that astrocytes are essential supportive satellite cells for neurons, and because damage to these cells ultimately affects neuronal function, the term 'neurotoxin' might reasonably be extended to include those chemical species which also adversely affect astrocytes. This review is intended to highlight developments that have occurred in the field of 'neurotoxins' during the past 5 years, including MPTP/MPP+, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), methamphetamine; salsolinol; leukoaminochrome-o-semiquinone; rotenone; iron; paraquat; HPP+; veratridine; soman; glutamate; kainate; 3-nitropropionic acid; peroxynitrite anion; and metals (copper, manganese, lead, mercury). Neurotoxins represent tools to help elucidate intra- and extra-cellular processes involved in neuronal necrosis and apoptosis, so that drugs can be developed towards targets that interrupt the processes leading towards neuronal death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Segura Aguilar
- Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, ICBM, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Casilla 70000, Santiago, Chile.
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