Microdialysis study of bromocriptine and its metabolites in rat pituitary and striatum

Prolactin in sleep and EEG regulation: new mechanisms and sleep-related brain targets complement classical data

The role of prolactin in sleep regulation has been the subject of extensive research over the past 50 years, resulting in the identification of multiple, disparate functions for the hormone. Prolactin demonstrated a characteristic circadian release pattern with elevation during dark and diminution during light. High prolactin levels were linked to non-rapid eye movement sleep and electroencephalogram delta activity in humans. Conversely, hyperprolactinemia showed strong correlation with REM sleep in rodent studies. Prolactin may be implicated in the alterations in female sleep patterns observed during the reproductive cycle, it may play a role in the REM sleep enhancement following stress and in sleep-related immunological processes. In conclusion, prolactin appears to have a sleep-promoting role, particularly during the dark phase. However, it does not appear to play a central and coherent role in sleep regulation, as observed in some neuropeptides such as orexin. Conversely, its principal function may be to facilitate situational, yet adaptive, changes in sleep patterns in response to challenging physiological phases, such as those associated with stress, immunological challenges, or the reproductive cycle. Neuronal substrates for prolactin-mediated sleep effects remain unknown; however, recent rodent sleep studies may provide insights into the potential sites of these effects.

Sleep and local field potential effect of the D2 receptor agonist bromocriptine during the estrus cycle and postpartum period in female rats

BACKGROUND

Pituitary lactotrophs are under tonic dopaminergic inhibitory control and bromocriptine treatment blocks prolactin secretion.

METHODS

Sleep and local field potential were addressed for 72 h after bromocriptine treatments applied during the different stages of the estrus cycle and for 24 h in the early- and middle postpartum period characterized by spontaneously different dynamics of prolactin release in female rats.

RESULTS

Sleep changes showed strong dependency on the estrus cycle phase of the drug application. Strongest increase of wakefulness and reduction of slow wave sleep- and rapid eye movements sleep appeared during diestrus-proestrus and middle postpartum treatments. Stronger sleep-wake effects appeared in the dark phase in case of the estrus cycle treatments, but in the light phase in postpartum treatments. Slow wave sleep and REM sleep loss in case of estrus cycle treatments was not compensated at all and sleep loss seen in the first day post-injection was gained further later. In opposition, slow wave sleep loss in the light phase after bromocriptine injections showed compensation in the postpartum period treatments. Bromocriptine treatments resulted in a depression of local field potential delta power during slow wave sleep while an enhancement in beta and gamma power during wakefulness regardless of the treatment timing.

CONCLUSIONS

These results can be explained by the interplay of dopamine D2 receptor agonism, lack of prolactin release and the spontaneous homeostatic sleep drive being altered in the different stages of the estrus cycle and the postpartum period.

CCRD based development of bromocriptine and glutathione nanoemulsion tailored ultrasonically for the combined anti-parkinson effect

Bromocriptine Mesylate (BRM) acts as a dopamine receptor agonist along with antioxidant effect and is utilized in the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). Glutathione (GSH) is a thiol- reducing agent having antioxidant properties in the brain. Replenishment of GSH inside the brain can play a major role in the management of PD. Both BRM and GSH suffer from low oral bioavailability and poor absorption. The objective of the present study was to develop BRM and GSH loaded nanoemulsion for the combined and synergistic effect delivered through the intranasal route for the better and effective management of PD. After extensive screening experiments, Capmul PG-8 NF was selected as oil, polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400 as a surfactant and propylene glycol as co-surfactant. Ultrasonication technique was employed for the fabrication of nanoemulsion. Central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was used to obtain the best formulation by optimization. Oil (%), S_mix (%), and sonication time (second) were chosen as independent variables for the optimization. Particle size, PDI, zeta potential, % transmittance, pH, refractive index, viscosity and conductivity of the optimized nanoemulsion were found to be 80.71 ± 2.75 nm, 0.217 ± 0.009, -12.60 ± 0.10 mV, 96.00 ± 3.05 %, 6.48 ± 0.28, 1.36 ± 0.03, 30.12 ± 0.10 mPas and 214.28 ± 2.79 μS/cm respectively. Surface morphology demonstrated that nanoemulsion possessed spherical and globular nature of the particle which showed 3.4 times and 1.5 times enhancement in drug permeation in the case of BRM and GSH respectively as compared to suspension. MTT assay done on neuro-2a cell lines revealed that nanoemulsion was safe for intranasal delivery. Behavioural studies were carried out to prove the efficacy of optimized nanoemulsion in PD using forced swimming test, locomotor activity test, catalepsy test, rota-rod test, and akinesia test in Wistar rats. The outcomes of the behavioural studies revealed that BRM and GSH loaded nanoemulsion treatment showed significant improvement in behavioural activities of PD (haloperidol-induced) rats after intranasal administration. This study concluded that BRM and GSH loaded nanoemulsion could be promising for the combined and synergistic anti-parkinson effect for the effective management of PD.

Fingerprints of CNS drug effects: a plasma neuroendocrine reflection of D2 receptor activation using multi-biomarker pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modelling

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Because biological systems behave as networks, multi-biomarker approaches increasingly replace single biomarker approaches in drug development. To improve the mechanistic insights into CNS drug effects, a plasma neuroendocrine fingerprint was identified using multi-biomarker pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) modelling. Short- and long-term D2 receptor activation was evaluated using quinpirole as a paradigm compound.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Rats received 0, 0.17 or 0.86 mg·kg-1 of the D2 agonist quinpirole i.v. Quinpirole concentrations in plasma and brain extracellular fluid (brainECF ), as well as plasma concentrations of 13 hormones and neuropeptides, were measured. Experiments were performed at day 1 and repeated after 7-day s.c. drug administration. PK/PD modelling was applied to identify the in vivo concentration-effect relations and neuroendocrine dynamics.

KEY RESULTS

The quinpirole pharmacokinetics were adequately described by a two-compartment model with an unbound brainECF -to-plasma concentration ratio of 5. The release of adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), growth hormone, prolactin and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary was influenced. Except for ACTH, D2 receptor expression levels on the pituitary hormone-releasing cells predicted the concentration-effect relationship differences. Baseline levels (ACTH, prolactin, TSH), hormone release (ACTH) and potency (TSH) changed with treatment duration.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The integrated multi-biomarker PK/PD approach revealed a fingerprint reflecting D2 receptor activation. This forms the conceptual basis for in vivo evaluation of on- and off-target CNS drug effects. The effect of treatment duration is highly relevant given the long-term use of D2 agonists in clinical practice. Further development towards quantitative systems pharmacology models will eventually facilitate mechanistic drug development.

Prosocial effects of prolactin in male rats: Social recognition, social approach and social learning

Prolactin (PRL) and oxytocin (OT) are pituitary hormones essential for lactation, but also promote sexual behavior. OT stimulates social behaviors, such as recognition, approach, and learning, but less is known about PRL in these behaviors. Since PRL and OT have complementary functions in reproduction, we hypothesized that PRL increases social recognition, approach, and learning. Male Long-Evans rats received ovine PRL (oPRL; 0.5, 2.0 or 5.0mg/kg), the PRL antagonist bromocriptine (0.1, 3.0 or 5.0mg/kg) or saline 20 mins before testing for recognition of familiar vs. unfamiliar stimulus males. Saline controls preferred the unfamiliar male (p<0.05), while bromocriptine blocked this preference. oPRL did not increase preference. To measure social approach, we determined if PRL restores approach 2h after defeat by an aggressive male. Defeated rats avoided the aggressive male. 2mg/kg oPRL, before or after defeat, restored approach towards the aggressive male (p<0.05). In non-defeated rats, oPRL or 3mg/kg bromocriptine had no effect. To determine if PRL increases social learning, we tested social transmission of food preference. Rats choose between two unfamiliar flavors, one of which they have previously been exposed to through interaction with a demonstrator rat. Vehicle controls preferred chow with the demonstrated flavor over the novel flavor. oPRL-treated rats were similar. Bromocriptine-treated rats failed to show a preference. When tested one week later, only oPRL-treated rats preferred the demonstrated flavor. The results suggest that PRL is required for social recognition and learning, and that increasing PRL enhances social memory and approach, similar to OT.

Effects of hypothalamic dopamine (DA) on salsolinol (SAL)-induced prolactin (PRL) secretion in male goats

The aim of the present study was to clarify the effects of hypothalamic dopamine (DA) on salsolinol (SAL)-induced prolactin (PRL) release in goats. The PRL-releasing response to an intravenous (i.v.) injection of SAL was examined after treatment with augmentation of central DA using carbidopa (carbi) and L-dopa in male goats under 8-h (8 h light, 16 h dark) or 16-h (16 h light, 8 h dark) photoperiod conditions. The carbi and L-dopa treatments reduced basal PRL concentrations in the 16-h photoperiod group (P < 0.05), while a reduction was not observed in the 8-h photoperiod group. The mean basal plasma PRL concentration in the control group for the 8-h photoperiod was lower than that for the 16-h photoperiod (P < 0.05). SAL significantly stimulated the release of PRL promptly after the injection in both the 8- and 16-h photoperiod groups (P < 0.05). PRL-releasing responses for the 16-h photoperiod were greater than those for the 8-h photoperiod (P < 0.05). The carbi and L-dopa treatments blunted SAL-induced PRL release in both the 8- and 16-h photoperiods (P < 0.05). These results indicate that hypothalamic DA blunts the SAL-induced release of PRL in male goats, regardless of the photoperiod, which suggests that both SAL and DA are involved in regulating the secretion of PRL in goats.

Bromocriptine loaded chitosan nanoparticles intended for direct nose to brain delivery: pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic and scintigraphy study in mice model

The primary aim of this study was to investigate the potential use of chitosan nanoparticles as a delivery system to enhance the brain targeting efficiency of bromocriptine (BRC) following intranasal (i.n.) administration. The BRC loaded chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs) were prepared by ionic gelation of CS with tripolyphosphate anions. These NPs had a mean size (161.3 ± 4. 7 nm), zeta potential (+40.3 ± 2.7 mV), loading capacity (37.8% ± 1.8%) and entrapment efficiency (84.2% ± 3.5%). The oral administration of haloperidol (2mg/kg) to mice produced typical Parkinson (PD) symptoms. Catalepsy and akinesia outcomes in animals receiving BRC either in solution or within CS NPs showed a reversal in catalepsy and akinesia behavior when compared to haloperidol treated mice, this reversal being specially pronounced in mice receiving BRC loaded CS NPs. Biodistribution of BRC formulations in the brain and blood of mice following i.n. and intravenous (i.v.) administration was performed using optimized technetium labeled (99mTc-labeled) BRC formulations. The brain/blood ratio of 0.47 ± 0.04, 0.69 ± 0.031, and 0.05 ± 0.01 for BRC solution (i.n.), BRC loaded CS NPs (i.n.) and (i.v.) respectively, at 0.5h are suggestive of direct nose to brain transport bypassing the blood-brain barrier. Gamma scintigraphy imaging of mice brain following i.v. and i.n. administrations were performed to determine the localization of drug in brain. The drug targeting index and direct transport percentage for BRC loaded CS NPs following i.n. route were 6.3 ± 0.8 and 84.2% ± 1.9%. These encouraging results confirmed the development of a novel non-invasive nose to brain delivery system of BRC for the treatment of PD.

Interactions between the dopamine agonist, bromocriptine and the efflux protein, P-glycoprotein at the blood–brain barrier in the mouse

Bromocriptin (BCT) is a dopaminergic receptor agonist, poorly transported through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and responsible for central side effects. Interactions between BCT and the efflux protein, P-glycoprotein (Pgp), have been described in vitro but nothing is known in vivo nor at the BBB level. At the BBB, in vivo, we investigated BCT as (i) a Pgp substrate by comparing the brain uptake in CF1 mdr1a(-/-) and mdr1a(+/+) mice with or without inhibitors of Pgp (valspodar, elacridar); (ii) a Pgp inducer by looking at the effect of repeated doses of BCT on cerebral uptake of digoxin and comparing it to the effect of dexamethasone and rifampicin; (iii) a Pgp inhibitor by determining the effect of a single dose of BCT on cerebral uptake of digoxin and comparing it to the effect of valspodar. CF1 mdr1a(-/-) mice showed much higher brain uptake of BCT than CF1 mdr1a(+/+) mice and brain uptake of BCT was higher in CF1 mdr1a(+/+) mice pre-treated with valspodar or elacridar indicating that BCT is a Pgp substrate at the BBB level. Brain uptake of digoxin was not modified in CF1 mdr1a(+/+) mice pre-treated with a single dose or repeated doses of BCT, indicating that BCT is neither a Pgp inductor nor a Pgp inhibitor at the BBB in the chosen experimental setting. In vivo, at the mouse BBB level and in our experimental conditions, bromocriptin is a Pgp substrate but is not a Pgp modulator.

Characterization of two pharmacophores on the multidrug transporter P-glycoprotein

The multidrug transporter P-glycoprotein is a plasma membrane protein involved in cell and tissue detoxification and the multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotype. It actively expels from cells a number of cytotoxic molecules, all amphiphilic but chemically unrelated. We investigated the molecular characteristics involved in the binding selectivity of P-glycoprotein by means of a molecular modeling approach using various substrates combined with an enzymological study using these substrates and native membrane vesicles prepared from MDR cells. We determined affinities and mutual relationships from the changes in P-glycoprotein ATPase activity induced by a series of cyclic peptides and peptide-like compounds, used alone or in combination. Modeling of the intramolecular distribution of the hydrophobic and polar surfaces of this series of molecules made it possible to superimpose some of these surface elements. These molecular alignments were correlated with the observed mutual exclusions for binding on P-glycoprotein. This led to the characterization of two different, but partially overlapping, pharmacophores. On each of these pharmacophores, the ligands compete with each other. The typical MDR-associated molecules, verapamil, cyclosporin A, and actinomycin D, bound to pharmacophore 1, whereas vinblastine bound to pharmacophore 2. Thus, the multispecific binding pocket of P-glycoprotein can be seen as sites, located near one another, that bind ligands according to the distribution of their hydrophobic and polar elements rather than their chemical motifs. The existence of two pharmacophores increases the possibilities for multiple chemical structure recognition. The size of the ligands affects their ability to compete with other ligands for binding to P-glycoprotein.