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Hammid A, Fallon JK, Vellonen KS, Lassila T, Reinisalo M, Urtti A, Gonzalez F, Tolonen A, Smith PC, Honkakoski P. Aldehyde oxidase 1 activity and protein expression in human, rabbit, and pig ocular tissues. Eur J Pharm Sci 2023; 191:106603. [PMID: 37827455 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2023.106603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AOX) is a cytosolic drug-metabolizing enzyme which has attracted increasing attention in drug development due to its high hepatic expression, broad substrate profile and species differences. In contrast, there is limited information on the presence and activity of AOX in extrahepatic tissues including ocular tissues. Because several ocular drugs are potential substrates for AOX, we performed a comprehensive analysis of the AOX1 expression and activity profile in seven ocular tissues from humans, rabbits, and pigs. AOX activities were determined using optimized assays for the established human AOX1 probe substrates 4-dimethylamino-cinnamaldehyde (DMAC) and phthalazine. Inhibition studies were undertaken in conjunctival and retinal homogenates using well-established human AOX1 inhibitors menadione and chlorpromazine. AOX1 protein contents were quantitated with targeted proteomics and confirmed by immunoblotting. Overall, DMAC oxidation rates varied over 10-fold between species (human ˃˃ rabbit ˃ pig) and showed 2- to 6-fold differences between tissues from the same species. Menadione seemed a more potent inhibitor of DMAC oxidation across species than chlorpromazine. Human AOX1 protein levels were highest in the conjunctiva, followed by most posterior tissues, whereas anterior tissues showed low levels. The rabbit AOX1 expression was high in the conjunctiva, retinal pigment epithelial (RPE), and choroid while lower in the anterior tissues. Quantification of pig AOX1 was not successful but immunoblotting confirmed the presence of AOX1 in all species. DMAC oxidation rates and AOX1 contents correlated quite well in humans and rabbits. This study provides, for the first time, insights into the ocular expression and activity of AOX1 among multiple species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anam Hammid
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - John K Fallon
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box 7355, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7355, United States
| | - Kati-Sisko Vellonen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Toni Lassila
- Admescope Ltd, Typpitie 1, FI-90620 Oulu, Finland
| | - Mika Reinisalo
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Arto Urtti
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5 E, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Francisco Gonzalez
- Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases (CIMUS), University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela, and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela (FIDIS), 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Ari Tolonen
- Admescope Ltd, Typpitie 1, FI-90620 Oulu, Finland
| | - Philip C Smith
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box 7355, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7355, United States
| | - Paavo Honkakoski
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland
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2
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Maghsoud Y, Dong C, Cisneros GA. Investigation of the Inhibition Mechanism of Xanthine Oxidoreductase by Oxipurinol: A Computational Study. J Chem Inf Model 2023. [PMID: 37319436 PMCID: PMC10405278 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c00624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is an enzyme found in various organisms. It converts hypoxanthine to xanthine and urate, which are crucial steps in purine elimination in humans. Elevated uric acid levels can lead to conditions like gout and hyperuricemia. Therefore, there is significant interest in developing drugs that target XOR for treating these conditions and other diseases. Oxipurinol, an analogue of xanthine, is a well-known inhibitor of XOR. Crystallographic studies have revealed that oxipurinol directly binds to the molybdenum cofactor (MoCo) in XOR. However, the precise details of the inhibition mechanism are still unclear, which would be valuable for designing more effective drugs with similar inhibitory functions. In this study, molecular dynamics and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations are employed to investigate the inhibition mechanism of XOR by oxipurinol. The study examines the structural and dynamic effects of oxipurinol on the pre-catalytic structure of the metabolite-bound system. Our results provide insights on the reaction mechanism catalyzed by the MoCo center in the active site, which aligns well with experimental findings. Furthermore, the results provide insights into the residues surrounding the active site and propose an alternative mechanism for developing alternative covalent inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yazdan Maghsoud
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
| | - Chao Dong
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, The University of Texas Permian Basin, Odessa, Texas 79762, United States
| | - G Andrés Cisneros
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
- Department of Physics, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
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3
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Maghsoud Y, Dong C, Cisneros GA. Computational Characterization of the Inhibition Mechanism of Xanthine Oxidoreductase by Topiroxostat. ACS Catal 2023; 13:6023-6043. [PMID: 37547543 PMCID: PMC10399974 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.3c01245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Xanthine oxidase (XO) is a member of the molybdopterin-containing enzyme family. It interconverts xanthine to uric acid as the last step of purine catabolism in the human body. The high uric acid concentration in the blood directly leads to human diseases like gout and hyperuricemia. Therefore, drugs that inhibit the biosynthesis of uric acid by human XO have been clinically used for many years to decrease the concentration of uric acid in the blood. In this study, the inhibition mechanism of XO and a new promising drug, topiroxostat (code: FYX-051), is investigated by employing molecular dynamics (MD) and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations. This drug has been reported to act as both a noncovalent and covalent inhibitor and undergoes a stepwise inhibition by all its hydroxylated metabolites, which include 2-hydroxy-FYX-051, dihydroxy-FYX-051, and trihydroxy-FYX-051. However, the detailed mechanism of inhibition of each metabolite remains elusive and can be useful for designing more effective drugs with similar inhibition functions. Hence, herein we present the computational investigation of the structural and dynamical effects of FYX-051 and the calculated reaction mechanism for all of the oxidation steps catalyzed by the molybdopterin center in the active site. Calculated results for the proposed reaction mechanisms for each metabolite's inhibition reaction in the enzyme's active site, binding affinities, and the noncovalent interactions with the surrounding amino acid residues are consistent with previously reported experimental findings. Analysis of the noncovalent interactions via energy decomposition analysis (EDA) and noncovalent interaction (NCI) techniques suggests that residues L648, K771, E802, R839, L873, R880, R912, F914, F1009, L1014, and A1079 can be used as key interacting residues for further hybrid-type inhibitor development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yazdan Maghsoud
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
| | - Chao Dong
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, The University of Texas Permian Basin, Odessa, Texas 79762, United States
| | - G Andrés Cisneros
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States; Department of Physics, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
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4
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Amelio D, Garofalo F. Morpho-functional changes of lungfish Protopterus dolloi skin in the shift from freshwater to aestivating conditions. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2023; 266:110846. [PMID: 36894022 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2023.110846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
African dipnoi (Protopterus sp.) are obligate air-breathing fish that, during dry season, may experience a period of dormancy named aestivation. Aestivation is characterized by complete reliance on pulmonary breathing, general decrease of metabolism and down-regulation of respiratory and cardiovascular functions. To date, little is known about morpho-functional rearrangements induced by aestivation in the skin of African lungfishes. Our study aims to identify, in the skin of P. dolloi, structural modifications and stress-induced molecules in response to short-term (6 days) and long-term (40 days) aestivation. Light microscopy showed that short-term aestivation induces major reorganization, with narrowing of epidermal layers and decrease of mucous cells; prolonged aestivation is characterized by regenerative processes and re-thickening of epidermal layers. Immunofluorescence reveals that aestivation correlates with an increased oxidative stress and changes of Heat Shock Proteins expression, suggesting a protective role for these chaperons. Our findings revealed that lungfish skin undergoes remarkable morphological and biochemical readjustments in response to stressful conditions associated with aestivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Amelio
- Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Science, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy.
| | - Filippo Garofalo
- Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Science, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, CS, Italy.
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5
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Bampidis V, Azimonti G, Bastos MDL, Christensen H, Dusemund B, Fašmon Durjava M, Kouba M, López‐Alonso M, López Puente S, Marcon F, Mayo B, Pechová A, Petkova M, Ramos F, Sanz Y, Villa RE, Woutersen R, Brantom P, Chesson A, Dierick N, Martelli G, Westendorf J, Anguita M, Ortuño Casanova J, Manini P. Safety of 27 flavouring compounds providing a milky-vanilla flavour and belonging to different chemical groups for use as feed additives in all animal species (FEFANA asbl). EFSA J 2023; 21:e07713. [PMID: 36698489 PMCID: PMC9846309 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety of 27 compounds to provide a milky-vanilla flavour belonging to different chemical groups, when used as sensory additives in feed for all animal species. Fifteen of the 27 compounds were tested in tolerance studies in chickens for fattening, piglets and cattle for fattening. No adverse effects were observed in the tolerance studies at 10-fold the intended level. The Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) concluded that the 15 tested compounds were safe for these species at the proposed use level and conclusions were extrapolated to all animal species. For the remaining 12 compounds, read-across from structurally similar compounds tested in tolerance trials and belonging to the same chemical group was applied. The FEEDAP Panel concluded that these 12 compounds were safe for all animal species at the proposed use level. No safety concern would arise for the consumer from the use of the 27 compounds up to the highest levels considered safe for target animals. No new data were submitted on the safety for the user that would allow the FEEDAP Panel to change its previous conclusion for 5-methylhept-2-en-4-one [07.139], 5-methylfurfural [13.001] and 4-phenylbut-3-en-2-one [07.024]. The concentrations considered safe for the target species are unlikely to have detrimental effects on the environment for all the compounds.
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6
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Godoy R, Arias I, Venthur H, Quiroz A, Mutis A. Characterization of Two Aldehyde Oxidases from the Greater Wax Moth, Galleria mellonella Linnaeus. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) with Potential Role as Odorant-Degrading Enzymes. INSECTS 2022; 13:1143. [PMID: 36555053 PMCID: PMC9782417 DOI: 10.3390/insects13121143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Odorant-degrading enzymes (ODEs) are proposed to degrade/inactivate volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on a millisecond timescale. Thus, ODEs play an important role in the insect olfactory system as a reset mechanism. The inhibition of these enzymes could incapacitate the olfactory system and, consequently, disrupt chemical communication, promoting and complementing the integrated pest management strategies. Here, we report two novel aldehyde oxidases, AOX-encoding genes GmelAOX2 and GmelAOX3, though transcriptomic analysis in the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella. GmelAOX2 was clustered in a clade with ODE function, according to phylogenetic analysis. Likewise, to unravel the profile of volatiles that G. mellonella might face besides the sex pheromone blend, VOCs were trapped from honeycombs and the identification was made by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR showed that GmelAXO2 has a sex-biased expression, and qRT-PCR indicated that both GmelAOX2 and GmelAOX3 have a higher relative expression in male antennae rather than female antennae. A functional assay revealed that antennal extracts had the strongest enzymatic activity against undecanal (4-fold) compared to benzaldehyde (control). Our data suggest that these enzymes have a crucial role in metabolizing sex pheromone compounds as well as plant-derived aldehydes, which are related to honeycombs and the life cycle of G. mellonella.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Godoy
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
- Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
| | - Ignacio Arias
- Carrera Bioquímica, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
| | - Herbert Venthur
- Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
- Centro de Investigación Biotecnológica Aplicada al Medio Ambiente, CIBAMA, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
| | - Andrés Quiroz
- Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
- Centro de Investigación Biotecnológica Aplicada al Medio Ambiente, CIBAMA, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
| | - Ana Mutis
- Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
- Centro de Investigación Biotecnológica Aplicada al Medio Ambiente, CIBAMA, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4811230, Chile
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7
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Gajula SNR, Nathani TN, Patil RM, Talari S, Sonti R. Aldehyde oxidase mediated drug metabolism: an underpredicted obstacle in drug discovery and development. Drug Metab Rev 2022; 54:427-448. [PMID: 36369949 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2022.2144879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) has garnered curiosity as a non-CYP metabolizing enzyme in drug development due to unexpected consequences such as toxic metabolite generation and high metabolic clearance resulting in the clinical failure of new drugs. Therefore, poor AO mediated clearance prediction in preclinical nonhuman species remains a significant obstacle in developing novel drugs. Various isoforms of AO, such as AOX1, AOX3, AOX3L1, and AOX4 exist across species, and different AO activity among humans influences the AO mediated drug metabolism. Therefore, carefully considering the unique challenges is essential in developing successful AO substrate drugs. The in vitro to in vivo extrapolation underpredicts AO mediated drug clearance due to the lack of reliable representative animal models, substrate-specific activity, and the discrepancy between absolute concentration and activity. An in vitro tool to extrapolate in vivo clearance using a yard-stick approach is provided to address the underprediction of AO mediated drug clearance. This approach uses a range of well-known AO drug substrates as calibrators for qualitative scaling new drugs into low, medium, or high clearance category drugs. So far, in vivo investigations on chimeric mice with humanized livers (humanized mice) have predicted AO mediated metabolism to the best extent. This review addresses the critical aspects of the drug discovery stage for AO metabolism studies, challenges faced in drug development, approaches to tackle AO mediated drug clearance's underprediction, and strategies to decrease the AO metabolism of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siva Nageswara Rao Gajula
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Hyderabad, Balanagar, Telangana, India
| | - Tanaaz Navin Nathani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Hyderabad, Balanagar, Telangana, India
| | - Rashmi Madhukar Patil
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Hyderabad, Balanagar, Telangana, India
| | - Sasikala Talari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Hyderabad, Balanagar, Telangana, India
| | - Rajesh Sonti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Hyderabad, Balanagar, Telangana, India
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Godoy R, Mutis A, Carabajal Paladino L, Venthur H. Genome-Wide Identification of Aldehyde Oxidase Genes in Moths and Butterflies Suggests New Insights Into Their Function as Odorant-Degrading Enzymes. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.823119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidases (AOXs) are common detoxifying enzymes in several organisms. In insects, AOXs act in xenobiotic metabolism and as odorant-degrading enzymes (ODEs). These last appear as crucial enzymes in the life cycle of insects, helping to reset their olfactory system, particularly in lepidopterans, which fulfill important ecological roles (e.g., pollination or destructive life cycles). A comprehensive understanding of their olfactory system has provided opportunities to study key chemosensory proteins. However, no significant advance has been made around lepidopteran AOXs research, and even less around butterflies, a recently evolved lineage. In this study we have identified novel AOX gene families in moths and butterflies in order to understand their role as ODEs. Eighteen genomes from both moths and butterflies were used for phylogenetics, molecular evolution and sequence analyses. We identified 164 AOXs, from which 91 are new. Their phylogeny showed two main clades that are potentially related to odorant-degrading function, where both moths and butterflies have AOXs. A first ODE-related clade seems to have a non-ditrysian origin, likely related to plant volatiles. A second ODE-related clade could be more pheromone-biased. Molecular evolution analysis suggests a slight purifying selection process, though a number of sites appeared under positive selection. ODE-related AOXs have changed a phenylalanine residue by proline in the active site. Finally, this study could serve as a reference for further evolutionary and functional studies around Lepidopteran AOXs.
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9
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Takaoka N, Sanoh S, Ohta S, Esmaeeli M, Leimkühler S, Kurosaki M, Terao M, Garattini E, Kotake Y. Involvement of aldehyde oxidase in the metabolism of aromatic and aliphatic aldehyde-odorants in the mouse olfactory epithelium. Arch Biochem Biophys 2022; 715:109099. [PMID: 34856193 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2021.109099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XMEs) expressed in the olfactory epithelium (OE) are known to metabolize odorants. Aldehyde oxidase (AOX) recognizes a wide range of substrates among which are substrates with aldehyde groups. Some of these AOX substrates are odorants, such as benzaldehyde and n-octanal. One of the mouse AOX isoforms, namely AOX2 (mAOX2), was shown to be specifically expressed in mouse OE but its role to metabolize odorants in this tissue remains unexplored. In this study, we investigated the involvement of mouse AOX isoforms in the oxidative metabolism of aldehyde-odorants in the OE. Mouse OE extracts effectively metabolized aromatic and aliphatic aldehyde-odorants. Gene expression analysis revealed that not only mAOX2 but also the mAOX3 isoform is expressed in the OE. Furthermore, evaluation of inhibitory effects using the purified recombinant enzymes led us to identify specific inhibitors of each isoform, namely chlorpromazine, 17β-estradiol, menadione, norharmane, and raloxifene. Using these specific inhibitors, we defined the contribution of mAOX2 and mAOX3 to the metabolism of aldehyde-odorants in the mouse OE. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that mAOX2 and mAOX3 are responsible for the oxidation of aromatic and aliphatic aldehyde-odorants in the mouse OE, implying their involvement in odor perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Takaoka
- Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan; Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Seigo Sanoh
- Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan.
| | - Shigeru Ohta
- Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Mariam Esmaeeli
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Germany
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Germany
| | - Mami Kurosaki
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Italy
| | - Mineko Terao
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Italy
| | - Enrico Garattini
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Italy
| | - Yaichiro Kotake
- Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
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10
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Uno Y, Uehara S, Yamazaki H. Drug-oxidizing and conjugating non-cytochrome P450 (non-P450) enzymes in cynomolgus monkeys and common marmosets as preclinical models for humans. Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 197:114887. [PMID: 34968483 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Many drug oxidations and conjugations are mediated by a variety of cytochromes P450 (P450) and non-P450 enzymes in humans and non-human primates. These non-P450 enzymes include aldehyde oxidases (AOX), carboxylesterases (CES), flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMO), glutathione S-transferases (GST), arylamine N-acetyltransferases (NAT),sulfotransferases (SULT), and uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) and their substrates include both endobiotics and xenobiotics. Cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis, an Old-World monkey) are widely used in preclinical studies because of their genetic and physiological similarities to humans. However, many reports have indicated the usefulness of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus, a New World monkey) as an alternative non-human primate model. Although knowledge of the drug-metabolizing properties of non-P450 enzymes in non-human primates is relatively limited, new research has started to provide an insight into the molecular characteristics of these enzymes in cynomolgus macaques and common marmosets. This mini-review provides collective information on the isoforms of non-P450 enzymes AOX, CES, FMO, GST, NAT, SULT, and UGT and their enzymatic profiles in cynomolgus macaques and common marmosets. In general, these non-P450 cynomolgus macaque and marmoset enzymes have high sequence identities and similar substrate recognitions to their human counterparts. However, these enzymes also exhibit some limited differences in function between species, just as P450 enzymes do, possibly due to small structural differences in amino acid residues. The findings summarized here provide a foundation for understanding the molecular mechanisms of polymorphic non-P450 enzymes and should contribute to the successful application of non-human primates as model animals for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Uno
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima 890-8580, Japan
| | - Shotaro Uehara
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan.
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Fukami T, Yokoi T, Nakajima M. Non-P450 Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes: Contribution to Drug Disposition, Toxicity, and Development. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2021; 62:405-425. [PMID: 34499522 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-052220-105907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Most clinically used drugs are metabolized in the body via oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis reactions, which are considered phase I reactions. Cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes, which primarily catalyze oxidation reactions, contribute to the metabolism of over 50% of clinically used drugs. In the last few decades, the function and regulation of P450s have been extensively studied, whereas the characterization of non-P450 phase I enzymes is still incomplete. Recent studies suggest that approximately 30% of drug metabolism is carried out by non-P450 enzymes. This review summarizes current knowledge of non-P450 phase I enzymes, focusing on their roles in controlling drug efficacy and adverse reactions as an important aspect of drug development. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Volume 62 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuki Fukami
- Drug Metabolism and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and WPI Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan;
| | - Tsuyoshi Yokoi
- Department of Drug Safety Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Miki Nakajima
- Drug Metabolism and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and WPI Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan;
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12
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Uehara S, Yoneda N, Higuchi Y, Yamazaki H, Suemizu H. Oxidative metabolism and pharmacokinetics of the EGFR inhibitor BIBX1382 in chimeric NOG-TKm30 mice transplanted with human hepatocytes. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2021; 41:100419. [PMID: 34624627 DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2021.100419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor BIBX1382 has failed in drug development because of poor oral exposure and low bioavailability associated with its extensive metabolism by aldehyde oxidase (AOX) in humans. In this study, we investigated the metabolic profiles and pharmacokinetics of BIBX1382 in chimeric NOG-TKm30 mice with humanized liver (humanized liver mice). After intravenous and oral BIBX1382 administration, increased plasma clearance and decreased oral exposure together with high production of the predominant oxidative metabolite (M1, BIBU1476) and secondary oxidized metabolite (M2) were observed in humanized liver mice. Extensive oxidation rates of BIBX1382 were observed in hepatocytes from humanized liver mice and were suppressed by the typical human AOX1 inhibitors raloxifene and hydralazine. Liver cytosolic fractions from humans, humanized liver mice, cynomolgus monkeys, minipigs, and guinea pigs, but not fractions from dogs, rabbits, rats, and mice, displayed high BIBX1382 clearance and resulted in oxidative metabolite production. These results indicate that humanized liver mice have human-type AOX activity based on the transplanted human liver AOX1 function. Humanized liver mice can be considered an important animal model for understanding the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of AOX drug substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shotaro Uehara
- Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Japan.
| | - Nao Yoneda
- Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Japan
| | | | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Japan
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13
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Garrido C, Leimkühler S. The Inactivation of Human Aldehyde Oxidase 1 by Hydrogen Peroxide and Superoxide. Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 49:729-735. [PMID: 34183377 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian aldehyde oxidases (AOX) are molybdo-flavoenzymes of pharmacological and pathophysiologic relevance that are involved in phase I drug metabolism and, as a product of their enzymatic activity, are also involved in the generation of reactive oxygen species. So far, the physiologic role of aldehyde oxidase 1 in the human body remains unknown. The human enzyme hAOX1 is characterized by a broad substrate specificity, oxidizing aromatic/aliphatic aldehydes into their corresponding carboxylic acids, and hydroxylating various heteroaromatic rings. The enzyme uses oxygen as terminal electron acceptor to produce hydrogen peroxide and superoxide during turnover. Since hAOX1 and, in particular, some natural variants produce not only H2O2 but also high amounts of superoxide, we investigated the effect of both ROS molecules on the enzymatic activity of hAOX1 in more detail. We compared hAOX1 to the high-O2 .--producing natural variant L438V for their time-dependent inactivation with H2O2/O2 .- during substrate turnover. We show that the inactivation of the hAOX1 wild-type enzyme is mainly based on the production of hydrogen peroxide, whereas for the variant L438V, both hydrogen peroxide and superoxide contribute to the time-dependent inactivation of the enzyme during turnover. Further, the level of inactivation was revealed to be substrate-dependent: using substrates with higher turnover numbers resulted in a faster inactivation of the enzymes. Analysis of the inactivation site of the enzyme identified a loss of the terminal sulfido ligand at the molybdenum active site by the produced ROS during turnover. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This work characterizes the substrate-dependent inactivation of human aldehyde oxidase 1 under turnover by reactive oxygen species and identifies the site of inactivation. The role of ROS in the inhibition of human aldehyde oxidase 1 will have a high impact on future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Garrido
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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14
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Uno Y, Uehara S, Murayama N, Yamazaki H. Genetic variants of aldehyde oxidase (AOX) 1 in cynomolgus and rhesus macaques. Xenobiotica 2021; 51:494-499. [PMID: 33434089 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2021.1874564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The cynomolgus macaque is a non-human primate species widely used in drug metabolism studies. Despite the importance of genetic polymorphisms in cytosolic aldehyde oxidase (AOX) 1 in humans, genetic variants have not been investigated in cynomolgus or rhesus macaques.Genetic variants in AOX1 were identified and allele frequencies were assessed using the genomes of 24 cynomolgus and 8 rhesus macaques. The analysis identified 38 non-synonymous variants, some of which were unique to cynomolgus macaques (bred in Cambodia, Indochina, or Indonesia) or rhesus macaques, whereas many variants were shared by the two lineages.Among the variants observed at relatively high frequencies, eight were selected for functional analysis. Recombinant P605L and V1338I AOX1 variants showed substantially lower phthalazine and carbazeran oxidation activities than the wild-type AOX1 protein.In liver cytosolic fractions from cynomolgus and rhesus macaques genotyped for P605L and V1338I AOX1, groups of cytosolic fractions with P605L and/or V1338I AOX1 variants showed significantly lower phthalazine and carbazeran oxidation activities than the wild type.These results indicate that AOX1 is polymorphic in cynomolgus and rhesus macaques, just as it is in humans. Further investigation is needed to reveal the functional significance of these AOX1 variants in drug metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Uno
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Japan.,Shin Nippon Biomedical Laboratories, Ltd, Kainan, Japan
| | - Shotaro Uehara
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Japan
| | - Norie Murayama
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Japan
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15
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Abstract
Uric acid is an end product of purine metabolism in human beings. An unusual and still unexplained phenomenon is that higher primates have relatively high uric acid levels in body fluids owing to a combination of absence of degradation and renal retention. The physiologic purpose of high uric acid levels still is enigmatic, but the pathobiologic burden is a variety of crystallopathies owing to the low aqueous solubility of uric acid such as gouty arthritis and acute uric acid nephropathy. In the urinary space, three distinct conditions result from chronic uric acid and/or urate precipitation. The first and most common variety is uric acid urolithiasis. In this condition, urate is a victim of a systemic metabolic disease in which increased acid load to the kidney is coupled with diminished urinary buffer capacity owing to defective ammonium excretion, resulting in titration of urate to its sparingly soluble protonated counterpart, uric acid, and the formation of stones. Uric acid is the innocent bystander of the crime. The second variety is hyperuricosuric calcium urolithiasis, in which uric acid confers lithogenicity via promotion of calcium oxalate precipitation by multiple mechanisms involving soluble, colloidal, and crystalline urate salts. Uric acid is the instigator of the crime. The third and least common condition involves urate as an integral part of the urolith as an ammonium salt driven by high ammonium and high urate concentrations in urine. Here, uric acid is one of the perpetrators of the crime. Both known and postulated pathogenesis of these three types of urolithiasis are reviewed and summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Adomako
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX
| | - Orson W Moe
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX; Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX; Charles and Jane Pak Center of Mineral Metabolism and Clinical Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX.
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16
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Uehara S, Yoneda N, Higuchi Y, Yamazaki H, Suemizu H. Human Aldehyde Oxidase 1–Mediated Carbazeran Oxidation in Chimeric TK-NOG Mice Transplanted with Human Hepatocytes. Drug Metab Dispos 2020; 48:580-586. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.120.091090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
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17
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Terao M, Garattini E, Romão MJ, Leimkühler S. Evolution, expression, and substrate specificities of aldehyde oxidase enzymes in eukaryotes. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:5377-5389. [PMID: 32144208 PMCID: PMC7170512 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.rev119.007741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidases (AOXs) are a small group of enzymes belonging to the larger family of molybdo-flavoenzymes, along with the well-characterized xanthine oxidoreductase. The two major types of reactions that are catalyzed by AOXs are the hydroxylation of heterocycles and the oxidation of aldehydes to their corresponding carboxylic acids. Different animal species have different complements of AOX genes. The two extremes are represented in humans and rodents; whereas the human genome contains a single active gene (AOX1), those of rodents, such as mice, are endowed with four genes (Aox1-4), clustering on the same chromosome, each encoding a functionally distinct AOX enzyme. It still remains enigmatic why some species have numerous AOX enzymes, whereas others harbor only one functional enzyme. At present, little is known about the physiological relevance of AOX enzymes in humans and their additional forms in other mammals. These enzymes are expressed in the liver and play an important role in the metabolisms of drugs and other xenobiotics. In this review, we discuss the expression, tissue-specific roles, and substrate specificities of the different mammalian AOX enzymes and highlight insights into their physiological roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mineko Terao
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Enrico Garattini
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Maria João Romão
- UCIBIO-Applied Biomolecular Sciences Unit, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany.
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18
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Manevski N, King L, Pitt WR, Lecomte F, Toselli F. Metabolism by Aldehyde Oxidase: Drug Design and Complementary Approaches to Challenges in Drug Discovery. J Med Chem 2019; 62:10955-10994. [PMID: 31385704 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) catalyzes oxidations of azaheterocycles and aldehydes, amide hydrolysis, and diverse reductions. AO substrates are rare among marketed drugs, and many candidates failed due to poor pharmacokinetics, interspecies differences, and adverse effects. As most issues arise from complex and poorly understood AO biology, an effective solution is to stop or decrease AO metabolism. This perspective focuses on rational drug design approaches to modulate AO-mediated metabolism in drug discovery. AO biological aspects are also covered, as they are complementary to chemical design and important when selecting the experimental system for risk assessment. The authors' recommendation is an early consideration of AO-mediated metabolism supported by computational and in vitro experimental methods but not an automatic avoidance of AO structural flags, many of which are versatile and valuable building blocks. Preferably, consideration of AO-mediated metabolism should be part of the multiparametric drug optimization process, with the goal to improve overall drug-like properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nenad Manevski
- UCB Celltech , 208 Bath Road , Slough SL13WE , United Kingdom
| | - Lloyd King
- UCB Celltech , 208 Bath Road , Slough SL13WE , United Kingdom
| | - William R Pitt
- UCB Celltech , 208 Bath Road , Slough SL13WE , United Kingdom
| | - Fabien Lecomte
- UCB Celltech , 208 Bath Road , Slough SL13WE , United Kingdom
| | - Francesca Toselli
- UCB BioPharma , Chemin du Foriest 1 , 1420 Braine-l'Alleud , Belgium
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19
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Inhibition of vertebrate aldehyde oxidase as a therapeutic treatment for cancer, obesity, aging and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 187:111948. [PMID: 31877540 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The aldehyde oxidases (AOXs) are a small sub-family of cytosolic molybdo-flavoenzymes, which are structurally conserved proteins and broadly distributed from plants to animals. AOXs play multiple roles in both physiological and pathological processes and AOX inhibition is of increasing significance in the development of novel drugs and therapeutic strategies. This review provides an overview of the evolution and the action mechanism of AOX and the role of each domain. The review provides an update of the polymorphisms in the human AOX. This review also summarises the physiology of AOX in different organs and its role in drug metabolism. The inhibition of AOX is a promising therapeutic treatment for cancer, obesity, aging and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
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20
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Dalvie D, Di L. Aldehyde oxidase and its role as a drug metabolizing enzyme. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 201:137-180. [PMID: 31128989 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) is a cytosolic enzyme that belongs to the family of structurally related molybdoflavoproteins like xanthine oxidase (XO). The enzyme is characterized by broad substrate specificity and marked species differences. It catalyzes the oxidation of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes and various heteroaromatic rings as well as reduction of several functional groups. The references to AO and its role in metabolism date back to the 1950s, but the importance of this enzyme in the metabolism of drugs has emerged in the past fifteen years. Several reviews on the role of AO in drug metabolism have been published in the past decade indicative of the growing interest in the enzyme and its influence in drug metabolism. Here, we present a comprehensive monograph of AO as a drug metabolizing enzyme with emphasis on marketed drugs as well as other xenobiotics, as substrates and inhibitors. Although the number of drugs that are primarily metabolized by AO are few, the impact of AO on drug development has been extensive. We also discuss the effect of AO on the systemic exposure and clearance these clinical candidates. The review provides a comprehensive analysis of drug discovery compounds involving AO with the focus on developmental candidates that were reported in the past five years with regards to pharmacokinetics and toxicity. While there is only one known report of AO-mediated clinically relevant drug-drug interaction (DDI), a detailed description of inhibitors and inducers of AO known to date has been presented here and the potential risks associated with DDI. The increasing recognition of the importance of AO has led to significant progress in predicting the site of AO-mediated metabolism using computational methods. Additionally, marked species difference in expression of AO makes it is difficult to predict human clearance with high confidence. The progress made towards developing in vivo, in vitro and in silico approaches for predicting AO metabolism and estimating human clearance of compounds that are metabolized by AO have also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak Dalvie
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Celgene Corporation, 10300, Campus Point Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, USA.
| | - Li Di
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Groton, CT 06340, UK
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21
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Hecker N, Lächele U, Stuckas H, Giere P, Hiller M. Convergent vomeronasal system reduction in mammals coincides with convergent losses of calcium signalling and odorant-degrading genes. Mol Ecol 2019; 28:3656-3668. [PMID: 31332871 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 06/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The vomeronasal system (VNS) serves crucial functions for detecting olfactory clues often related to social and sexual behaviour. Intriguingly, two of the main components of the VNS, the vomeronasal organ (VNO) and the accessory olfactory bulb, are regressed in aquatic mammals, several bats and primates, likely due to adaptations to different ecological niches. To detect genomic changes that are associated with the convergent reduction of the VNS, we performed the first systematic screen for convergently inactivated protein-coding genes associated with convergent VNS reduction, considering 106 mammalian genomes. Extending previous studies, our results support that Trpc2, a cation channel that is important for calcium signalling in the VNO, is a predictive molecular marker for the presence of a VNS. Our screen also detected the convergent inactivation of the calcium-binding protein S100z, the aldehyde oxidase Aox2 that is involved in odorant degradation, and the uncharacterized Mslnl gene that is expressed in the VNO and olfactory epithelium. Furthermore, we found that Trpc2 and S100z or Aox2 are also inactivated in otters and Phocid seals for which no morphological data about the VNS are available yet. This predicts a VNS reduction in these semi-aquatic mammals. By examining the genomes of 115 species in total, our study provides a detailed picture of how the convergent reduction of the VNS coincides with gene inactivation in placental mammals. These inactivated genes provide experimental targets for studying the evolution and biological significance of the olfactory system under different environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai Hecker
- Center for Systems Biology Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ulla Lächele
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Berlin, Germany
| | - Heiko Stuckas
- Population Genetics, Senckenberg Natural History Collections Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Leibniz Institution for Biodiversity and Earth System Research, Dresden, Germany
| | - Peter Giere
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Hiller
- Center for Systems Biology Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems, Dresden, Germany
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22
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Deris-Abdolahpour F, Abdolalipouran-Sadegh L, Dastmalchi S, Hamzeh-Mivehroud M, Zarei O, Dehgan G, Rashidi MR. Effects of Phenothiazines on Aldehyde Oxidase Activity Towards Aldehydes and N-Heterocycles: an In Vitro and In Silico Study. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2019; 44:275-286. [PMID: 30382490 DOI: 10.1007/s13318-018-0514-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aldehyde oxidase (AOX) is an important molybdenum-containing enzyme with high similarity with xanthine oxidase (XO). AOX involved in the metabolism of a large array of aldehydes and N-heterocyclic compounds and its activity is highly substrate-dependent. OBJECTIVES The aim of this work was to study the effect of five important phenothiazine drugs on AOX activity using benzaldehyde and phenanthridine as aldehyde and N-heterocyclic substrates, respectively. METHODS The effect of trifluperazine, chlorpromazine, perphenazine, thioridazine and promethazine on rat liver AOX was measured spectrophotometrically. To predict the mode of interactions between the studied compounds and AOX, a combination of homology modeling and a molecular docking study was performed. RESULTS All phenothiazines could inhibit AOX activity measured either by phenanthridine or benzaldehyde with almost no effect on XO activity. In the case of benzaldehyde oxidation, the lowest and highest half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values were obtained for promethazine (IC50 = 0.9 µM), and trifluoperazine (IC50 = 3.9 µM), respectively; whereas perphenazine (IC50 = 4.3 µM), and trifluoperazine (IC50 = 49.6 µM) showed the strongest and weakest inhibitory activity against AOX-catalyzed phenanthridine oxidation, respectively. The in silico findings revealed that the binding site of thioridazine is near the dimer interference, and that hydrophobic interactions are of great importance in all the tested phenothiazines. CONCLUSION The five studied phenothiazine drugs showed dual inhibitory effects on AOX activity towards aldehydes and N-heterocycles as two major classes of enzyme substrates. Most of the interactions between the phenothiazine-related drugs and AOX in the binding pocket showed a hydrophobic nature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Siavoush Dastmalchi
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- School of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Maryam Hamzeh-Mivehroud
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- School of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Omid Zarei
- Neurosciences Research Center, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Dehgan
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Science, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad-Reza Rashidi
- School of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
- Research Center for Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, 51664-14766, Iran.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Beedham
- Honorary Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Life Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
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24
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Identification, Characterization, and Expression Patterns of TCP Genes and microRNA319 in Cotton. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19113655. [PMID: 30463287 PMCID: PMC6274894 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The TEOSINTE BRANCHED 1, CYCLOIDEA, and PROLIFERATING CELL FACTORS (TCP) gene family is a group of plant-specific transcription factors that have versatile functions in developmental processes and stress responses. In this study, a total of 73 TCP genes in upland cotton were identified and characterizated. Phylogenetic analysis classified them into three subgroups: 50 belonged to PCF, 16 to CIN, and 7 to CYC/TB1. GhTCP genes are randomly distributed in 22 of the 26 chromosomes in cotton. Expression patterns of GhTCPs were analyzed in 10 tissues, including different developmental stages of ovule and fiber, as well as under heat, salt, and drought stresses. Transcriptome analysis showed that 44 GhTCP genes exhibited varied transcript accumulation patterns in the tested tissues and 41 GhTCP genes were differentially expressed in response to heat, salt, and drought stresses. Furthermore, three GhTCP genes of the CIN clade were found to contain miR319-binding sites. An anti-correlation expression of GhTCP21 and GhTCP54 was analyzed with miR319 under salt and drought stress. Our results lay the foundation for understanding the complex mechanisms of GhTCP-mediated developmental processes and abiotic stress-signaling transduction pathways in cotton.
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25
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Takaoka N, Sanoh S, Okuda K, Kotake Y, Sugahara G, Yanagi A, Ishida Y, Tateno C, Tayama Y, Sugihara K, Kitamura S, Kurosaki M, Terao M, Garattini E, Ohta S. Inhibitory effects of drugs on the metabolic activity of mouse and human aldehyde oxidases and influence on drug–drug interactions. Biochem Pharmacol 2018; 154:28-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2018.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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26
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Mota C, Coelho C, Leimkühler S, Garattini E, Terao M, Santos-Silva T, Romão MJ. Critical overview on the structure and metabolism of human aldehyde oxidase and its role in pharmacokinetics. Coord Chem Rev 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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27
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Ámon J, Fernández-Martín R, Bokor E, Cultrone A, Kelly JM, Flipphi M, Scazzocchio C, Hamari Z. A eukaryotic nicotinate-inducible gene cluster: convergent evolution in fungi and bacteria. Open Biol 2018; 7:rsob.170199. [PMID: 29212709 PMCID: PMC5746545 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.170199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nicotinate degradation has hitherto been elucidated only in bacteria. In the ascomycete Aspergillus nidulans, six loci, hxnS/AN9178 encoding the molybdenum cofactor-containing nicotinate hydroxylase, AN11197 encoding a Cys2/His2 zinc finger regulator HxnR, together with AN11196/hxnZ, AN11188/hxnY, AN11189/hxnP and AN9177/hxnT, are clustered and stringently co-induced by a nicotinate derivative and subject to nitrogen metabolite repression mediated by the GATA factor AreA. These genes are strictly co-regulated by HxnR. Within the hxnR gene, constitutive mutations map in two discrete regions. Aspergillus nidulans is capable of using nicotinate and its oxidation products 6-hydroxynicotinic acid and 2,5-dihydroxypyridine as sole nitrogen sources in an HxnR-dependent way. HxnS is highly similar to HxA, the canonical xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH), and has originated by gene duplication, preceding the origin of the Pezizomycotina. This cluster is conserved with some variations throughout the Aspergillaceae. Our results imply that a fungal pathway has arisen independently from bacterial ones. Significantly, the neo-functionalization of XDH into nicotinate hydroxylase has occurred independently from analogous events in bacteria. This work describes for the first time a gene cluster involved in nicotinate catabolism in a eukaryote and has relevance for the formation and evolution of co-regulated primary metabolic gene clusters and the microbial degradation of N-heterocyclic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judit Ámon
- Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged Faculty of Science and Informatics, Szeged, Hungary (present address of ZH)
| | | | - Eszter Bokor
- Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged Faculty of Science and Informatics, Szeged, Hungary (present address of ZH)
| | - Antonietta Cultrone
- Institute de Génétique et Microbiologie, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France
| | - Joan M Kelly
- Department of Biology, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
| | - Michel Flipphi
- Institute de Génétique et Microbiologie, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France
| | - Claudio Scazzocchio
- Institute de Génétique et Microbiologie, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France .,Department of Biology, University of Essex, Colchester, UK.,Department of Microbiology, Imperial College, London, UK (present address of CS).,Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette, France (present address of CS)
| | - Zsuzsanna Hamari
- Department of Microbiology, University of Szeged Faculty of Science and Informatics, Szeged, Hungary (present address of ZH) .,Institute de Génétique et Microbiologie, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France
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Characterization of xanthine dehydrogenase and aldehyde oxidase of Marsupenaeus japonicus and their response to microbial pathogen. Mol Biol Rep 2018; 45:419-432. [DOI: 10.1007/s11033-018-4177-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Apenova N, Peng H, Hecker M, Brinkmann M. A rapid and sensitive fluorometric method for determination of aldehyde oxidase activity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2018; 341:30-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2018.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Uchida H, Mikami B, Yamane-Tanabe A, Ito A, Hirano K, Oki M. Crystal structure of an aldehyde oxidase from Methylobacillus sp. KY4400. J Biochem 2018; 163:321-328. [DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvy004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Uchida
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Fukui, 9-1, Bunkyo 3-Chome, Fukui 910-8507, Japan
| | - Bunzou Mikami
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Aiko Yamane-Tanabe
- Division of Applied Life Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan
| | - Anna Ito
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Fukui, 9-1, Bunkyo 3-Chome, Fukui 910-8507, Japan
| | - Kouzou Hirano
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Fukui, 9-1, Bunkyo 3-Chome, Fukui 910-8507, Japan
| | - Masaya Oki
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Fukui, 9-1, Bunkyo 3-Chome, Fukui 910-8507, Japan
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Barzago MM, Kurosaki M, Fratelli M, Bolis M, Giudice C, Nordio L, Cerri E, Domenici L, Terao M, Garattini E. Generation of a new mouse model of glaucoma characterized by reduced expression of the AP-2β and AP-2δ proteins. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11140. [PMID: 28894266 PMCID: PMC5593953 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11752-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We generated 6 transgenic lines with insertion of an expression plasmid for the R883/M xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) mutant protein. Approximately 20% of the animals deriving from one of the transgenic lines show ocular abnormalities and an increase in intra-ocular pressure which are consistent with glaucoma. The observed pathologic phenotype is not due to expression of the transgene, but rather the consequence of the transgene insertion site, which has been defined by genome sequencing. The insertion site maps to chromosome 1qA3 in close proximity to the loci encoding AP-2β and AP-2δ, two proteins expressed in the eye. The insertion leads to a reduction in AP-2β and AP-2δ levels. Down-regulation of AP-2β expression is likely to be responsible for the pathologic phenotype, as conditional deletion of the Tfap2b gene in the neural crest has recently been shown to cause defective development of the eye anterior segment and early-onset glaucoma. In these conditional knock-out and our transgenic mice, the morphological/histological features of the glaucomatous pathology are surprisingly similar. Our transgenic mouse represents a model of angle-closure glaucoma and a useful tool for the study of the pathogenesis and the development of innovative therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Monica Barzago
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Mami Kurosaki
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Maddalena Fratelli
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Marco Bolis
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Chiara Giudice
- DIVET, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Italy, Via Celoria 10, 20113, Milano, Italy
| | - Laura Nordio
- DIVET, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milan, Italy, Via Celoria 10, 20113, Milano, Italy
| | - Elisa Cerri
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Neuroscience Institute, Pisa, Italy
| | - Luciano Domenici
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Neuroscience Institute, Pisa, Italy
- Department of Applied Clinical Sciences and Biotechnology (DISCAB), University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Mineko Terao
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy.
| | - Enrico Garattini
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy.
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Pouwels SD, Faiz A, den Boef LE, Gras R, van den Berge M, Boezen HM, Korstanje R, ten Hacken NHT, van Oosterhout AJM, Heijink IH, Nawijn MC. Genetic variance is associated with susceptibility for cigarette smoke-induced DAMP release in mice. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2017; 313:L559-L580. [DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00466.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by unresolved neutrophilic airway inflammation and is caused by chronic exposure to toxic gases, such as cigarette smoke (CS), in genetically susceptible individuals. Recent data indicate a role for damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in COPD. Here, we investigated the genetics of CS-induced DAMP release in 28 inbred mouse strains. Subsequently, in lung tissue from a subset of strains, the expression of the identified candidate genes was analyzed. We tested whether small interfering RNA-dependent knockdown of candidate genes altered the susceptibility of the human A549 cell line to CS-induced cell death and DAMP release. Furthermore, we tested whether these genes were differentially regulated by CS exposure in bronchial brushings obtained from individuals with a family history indicative of either the presence or absence of susceptibility for COPD. We observed that, of the four DAMPs tested, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) showed the highest correlation with neutrophilic airway inflammation. Genetic analyses identified 11 candidate genes governing either CS-induced or basal dsDNA release in mice. Two candidate genes ( Elac2 and Ppt1) showed differential expression in lung tissue on CS exposure between susceptible and nonsusceptible mouse strains. Knockdown of ELAC2 and PPT1 in A549 cells altered susceptibility to CS extract-induced cell death and DAMP release. In bronchial brushings, CS-induced expression of ENOX1 and ARGHGEF11 was significantly different between individuals susceptible or nonsusceptible for COPD. Our study shows that genetic variance in a mouse model is associated with CS-induced DAMP release, and that this might contribute to susceptibility for COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D. Pouwels
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alen Faiz
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Lisette E. den Boef
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Reneé Gras
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten van den Berge
- GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Pulmonology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - H. Marike Boezen
- GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Nick H. T. ten Hacken
- GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Pulmonology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Antoon J. M. van Oosterhout
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Irene H. Heijink
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Pulmonology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn C. Nawijn
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- GRIAC Research Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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Kumar R, Joshi G, Kler H, Kalra S, Kaur M, Arya R. Toward an Understanding of Structural Insights of Xanthine and Aldehyde Oxidases: An Overview of their Inhibitors and Role in Various Diseases. Med Res Rev 2017; 38:1073-1125. [DOI: 10.1002/med.21457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raj Kumar
- Laboratory for Drug Design and Synthesis, Centre for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, School of Basic and Applied Sciences; Central University of Punjab; Bathinda 151001 India
| | - Gaurav Joshi
- Laboratory for Drug Design and Synthesis, Centre for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, School of Basic and Applied Sciences; Central University of Punjab; Bathinda 151001 India
| | - Harveen Kler
- Laboratory for Drug Design and Synthesis, Centre for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, School of Basic and Applied Sciences; Central University of Punjab; Bathinda 151001 India
| | - Sourav Kalra
- Laboratory for Drug Design and Synthesis, Centre for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, School of Basic and Applied Sciences; Central University of Punjab; Bathinda 151001 India
- Centre for Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine
| | - Manpreet Kaur
- Laboratory for Drug Design and Synthesis, Centre for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, School of Basic and Applied Sciences; Central University of Punjab; Bathinda 151001 India
| | - Ramandeep Arya
- Laboratory for Drug Design and Synthesis, Centre for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, School of Basic and Applied Sciences; Central University of Punjab; Bathinda 151001 India
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Wilkinson DJ, Southall RL, Li M, Wright LM, Corfield LJ, Heeley TA, Bratby B, Mannu R, Johnson SL, Shaw V, Friett HL, Blakeburn LA, Kendrick JS, Otteneder MB. Minipig and Human Metabolism of Aldehyde Oxidase Substrates: In Vitro–In Vivo Comparisons. AAPS JOURNAL 2017; 19:1163-1174. [DOI: 10.1208/s12248-017-0087-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Romão MJ, Coelho C, Santos-Silva T, Foti A, Terao M, Garattini E, Leimkühler S. Structural basis for the role of mammalian aldehyde oxidases in the metabolism of drugs and xenobiotics. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2017; 37:39-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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36
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Rashidi MR, Soltani S. An overview of aldehyde oxidase: an enzyme of emerging importance in novel drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2017; 12:305-316. [DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2017.1284198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad-Reza Rashidi
- Research Center for Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Somaieh Soltani
- Drug Applied Research Center and Pharmacy Faculty, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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37
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Structural features of guinea pig aldehyde oxidase inhibitory activities of flavonoids explored using QSAR and molecular modeling studies. Med Chem Res 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-016-1696-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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38
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Argikar UA, Potter PM, Hutzler JM, Marathe PH. Challenges and Opportunities with Non-CYP Enzymes Aldehyde Oxidase, Carboxylesterase, and UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase: Focus on Reaction Phenotyping and Prediction of Human Clearance. AAPS JOURNAL 2016; 18:1391-1405. [PMID: 27495117 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-016-9962-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Over the years, significant progress has been made in reducing metabolic instability due to cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation. High-throughput metabolic stability screening has enabled the advancement of compounds with little to no oxidative metabolism. Furthermore, high lipophilicity and low aqueous solubility of presently pursued chemotypes reduces the probability of renal excretion. As such, these low microsomal turnover compounds are often substrates for non-CYP-mediated metabolism. UGTs, esterases, and aldehyde oxidase are major enzymes involved in catalyzing such metabolism. Hepatocytes provide an excellent tool to identify such pathways including elucidation of major metabolites. To predict human PK parameters for P450-mediated metabolism, in vitro-in vivo extrapolation using hepatic microsomes, hepatocytes, and intestinal microsomes has been actively investigated. However, such methods have not been sufficiently evaluated for non-P450 enzymes. In addition to the involvement of the liver, extrahepatic enzymes (intestine, kidney, lung) are also likely to contribute to these pathways. While there has been considerable progress in predicting metabolic pathways and clearance primarily mediated by the liver, progress in characterizing extrahepatic metabolism and prediction of clearance has been slow. Well-characterized in vitro systems or in vivo animal models to assess drug-drug interaction potential and intersubject variability due to polymorphism are not available. Here we focus on the utility of appropriate in vitro studies to characterize non-CYP-mediated metabolism and to understand the enzymes involved followed by pharmacokinetic studies in the appropriately characterized surrogate species. The review will highlight progress made in establishing in vitro-in vivo correlation, predicting human clearance and avoiding costly clinical failures when non-CYP-mediated metabolic pathways are predominant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Upendra A Argikar
- Analytical Sciences and Imaging, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Philip M Potter
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - J Matthew Hutzler
- Q2 Solutions, Bioanalytical and ADME Labs, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Punit H Marathe
- Department of Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
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Terao M, Barzago MM, Kurosaki M, Fratelli M, Bolis M, Borsotti A, Bigini P, Micotti E, Carli M, Invernizzi RW, Bagnati R, Passoni A, Pastorelli R, Brunelli L, Toschi I, Cesari V, Sanoh S, Garattini E. Mouse aldehyde-oxidase-4 controls diurnal rhythms, fat deposition and locomotor activity. Sci Rep 2016; 6:30343. [PMID: 27456060 PMCID: PMC4960552 DOI: 10.1038/srep30343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Aldehyde-oxidase-4 (AOX4) is one of the mouse aldehyde oxidase isoenzymes and its physiological function is unknown. The major source of AOX4 is the Harderian-gland, where the enzyme is characterized by daily rhythmic fluctuations. Deletion of the Aox4 gene causes perturbations in the expression of the circadian-rhythms gene pathway, as indicated by transcriptomic analysis. AOX4 inactivation alters the diurnal oscillations in the expression of master clock-genes. Similar effects are observed in other organs devoid of AOX4, such as white adipose tissue, liver and hypothalamus indicating a systemic action. While perturbations of clock-genes is sex-independent in the Harderian-gland and hypothalamus, sex influences this trait in liver and white-adipose-tissue which are characterized by the presence of AOX isoforms other than AOX4. In knock-out animals, perturbations in clock-gene expression are accompanied by reduced locomotor activity, resistance to diet induced obesity and to hepatic steatosis. All these effects are observed in female and male animals. Resistance to obesity is due to diminished fat accumulation resulting from increased energy dissipation, as white-adipocytes undergo trans-differentiation towards brown-adipocytes. Metabolomics and enzymatic data indicate that 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid and tryptophan are novel endogenous AOX4 substrates, potentially involved in AOX4 systemic actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mineko Terao
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Maria Monica Barzago
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Mami Kurosaki
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Maddalena Fratelli
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Marco Bolis
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Andrea Borsotti
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Paolo Bigini
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Protein Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Edoardo Micotti
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative diseases, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Mirjana Carli
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behaviour, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Roberto William Invernizzi
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behaviour, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Renzo Bagnati
- Analytical Instrumentation Unit, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Alice Passoni
- Analytical Instrumentation Unit, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Roberta Pastorelli
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Laura Brunelli
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Ivan Toschi
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences; Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Valentina Cesari
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences; Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Seigo Sanoh
- Graduate School of Biochemical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima Japan
| | - Enrico Garattini
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
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40
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Structure and function of mammalian aldehyde oxidases. Arch Toxicol 2016; 90:753-80. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1683-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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41
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Siah M, Farzaei MH, Ashrafi-Kooshk MR, Adibi H, Arab SS, Rashidi MR, Khodarahmi R. Inhibition of guinea pig aldehyde oxidase activity by different flavonoid compounds: An in vitro study. Bioorg Chem 2016; 64:74-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2015.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2015] [Revised: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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42
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Isobe T, Ohta M, Kaneko Y, Kawai H. Species differences in metabolism of ripasudil (K-115) are attributed to aldehyde oxidase. Xenobiotica 2015; 46:579-590. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2015.1096981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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43
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Ballard TE, Wang S, Cox LM, Moen MA, Krzyzewski S, Ukairo O, Obach RS. Application of a Micropatterned Cocultured Hepatocyte System To Predict Preclinical and Human-Specific Drug Metabolism. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 44:172-9. [PMID: 26608083 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.066688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Laboratory animal models are the industry standard for preclinical risk assessment of drug candidates. Thus, it is important that these species possess profiles of drug metabolites that are similar to those anticipated in human, since metabolites also could be responsible for biologic activities or unanticipated toxicity. Under most circumstances, preclinical species reflect human in vivo metabolites well; however, there have been several notable exceptions, and understanding and predicting these exceptions with an in vitro system would be very useful. Human micropatterned cocultured (MPCC) hepatocytes have been shown to recapitulate human in vivo qualitative metabolic profiles, but the same demonstration has not been performed yet for laboratory animal species. In this study, we investigated several compounds that are known to produce human-unique metabolites through CYP2C9, UGT1A4, aldehyde oxidase (AO), or N-acetyltransferase that were poorly covered or not detected at all in the selected preclinical species. To perform our investigation we used 24-well MPCC hepatocyte plates having three individual human donors and a single donor each of monkey, dog, and rat to study drug metabolism at four time points per species. Through the use of the multispecies MPCC hepatocyte system, the metabolite profiles of the selected compounds in human donors effectively captured the qualitative in vivo metabolite profile with respect to the human metabolite of interest. Human-unique metabolites that were not detected in vivo in certain preclinical species (normally dog and rat) were also not generated in the corresponding species in vitro, confirming that the MPCC hepatocytes can provide an assessment of preclinical species metabolism. From these results, we conclude that multispecies MPCC hepatocyte plates could be used as an effective in vitro tool for preclinical understanding of species metabolism relative to humans and aid in the choice of appropriate preclinical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Eric Ballard
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (T.E.B., S.W., L.M.C., M.A.M., R.S.O.); Hepregen Corporation, Medford, Massachusetts (S.K., O.U.),
| | - Shuai Wang
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (T.E.B., S.W., L.M.C., M.A.M., R.S.O.); Hepregen Corporation, Medford, Massachusetts (S.K., O.U.)
| | - Loretta M Cox
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (T.E.B., S.W., L.M.C., M.A.M., R.S.O.); Hepregen Corporation, Medford, Massachusetts (S.K., O.U.)
| | - Mark A Moen
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (T.E.B., S.W., L.M.C., M.A.M., R.S.O.); Hepregen Corporation, Medford, Massachusetts (S.K., O.U.)
| | - Stacy Krzyzewski
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (T.E.B., S.W., L.M.C., M.A.M., R.S.O.); Hepregen Corporation, Medford, Massachusetts (S.K., O.U.)
| | - Okechukwu Ukairo
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (T.E.B., S.W., L.M.C., M.A.M., R.S.O.); Hepregen Corporation, Medford, Massachusetts (S.K., O.U.)
| | - R Scott Obach
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (T.E.B., S.W., L.M.C., M.A.M., R.S.O.); Hepregen Corporation, Medford, Massachusetts (S.K., O.U.)
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Meta-Analysis of Microarray Data of Rainbow Trout Fry Gonad Differentiation Modulated by Ethynylestradiol. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0135799. [PMID: 26379055 PMCID: PMC4574709 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Sex differentiation in fish is a highly labile process easily reversed by the use of exogenous hormonal treatment and has led to environmental concerns since low doses of estrogenic molecules can adversely impact fish reproduction. The goal of this study was to identify pathways altered by treatment with ethynylestradiol (EE2) in developing fish and to find new target genes to be tested further for their possible role in male-to-female sex transdifferentiation. To this end, we have successfully adapted a previously developed bioinformatics workflow to a meta-analysis of two datasets studying sex reversal following exposure to EE2 in juvenile rainbow trout. The meta-analysis consisted of retrieving the intersection of the top gene lists generated for both datasets, performed at different levels of stringency. The intersecting gene lists, enriched in true positive differentially expressed genes (DEGs), were subjected to over-representation analysis (ORA) which allowed identifying several statistically significant enriched pathways altered by EE2 treatment and several new candidate pathways, such as progesterone-mediated oocyte maturation and PPAR signalling. Moreover, several relevant key genes potentially implicated in the early transdifferentiation process were selected. Altogether, the results show that EE2 has a great effect on gene expression in juvenile rainbow trout. The feminization process seems to result from the altered transcription of genes implicated in normal female gonad differentiation, resulting in expression similar to that observed in normal females (i.e. the repression of key testicular markers cyp17a1, cyp11b, tbx1), as well as from other genes (including transcription factors) that respond specifically to the EE2 treatment. The results also showed that the bioinformatics workflow can be applied to different types of microarray platforms and could be generalized to (eco)toxicogenomics studies for environmental risk assessment purposes.
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Sanoh S, Tayama Y, Sugihara K, Kitamura S, Ohta S. Significance of aldehyde oxidase during drug development: Effects on drug metabolism, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and efficacy. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2015; 30:52-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2014.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Cerqueira NMFSA, Coelho C, Brás NF, Fernandes PA, Garattini E, Terao M, Romão MJ, Ramos MJ. Insights into the structural determinants of substrate specificity and activity in mouse aldehyde oxidases. J Biol Inorg Chem 2014; 20:209-17. [PMID: 25287365 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-014-1198-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In this work, a combination of homology modeling and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations was used to investigate the factors that modulate substrate specificity and activity of the mouse AOX isoforms: mAOX1, mAOX2 (previously mAOX3l1), mAOX3 and mAOX4. The results indicate that the AOX isoform structures are highly preserved and even more conserved than the corresponding amino acid sequences. The only differences are at the protein surface and substrate-binding site region. The substrate-binding site of all isoforms consists of two regions: the active site, which is highly conserved among all isoforms, and a isoform-specific region located above. We predict that mAOX1 accepts a broader range of substrates of different shape, size and nature relative to the other isoforms. In contrast, mAOX4 appears to accept a more restricted range of substrates. Its narrow and hydrophobic binding site indicates that it only accepts small hydrophobic substrates. Although mAOX2 and mAOX3 are very similar to each other, we propose the following pairs of overlapping substrate specificities: mAOX2/mAOX4 and mAOX3/mAXO1. Based on these considerations, we propose that the catalytic activity between all isoforms should be similar but the differences observed in the binding site might influence the substrate specificity of each enzyme. These results also suggest that the presence of several AOX isoforms in mouse allows them to oxidize more efficiently a wider range of substrates. This contrasts with the same or other organisms that only express one isoform and are less efficient or incapable of oxidizing the same type of substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno M F S A Cerqueira
- UCIBIO@REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal
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Marelja Z, Dambowsky M, Bolis M, Georgiou ML, Garattini E, Missirlis F, Leimkühler S. The four aldehyde oxidases of Drosophila melanogaster have different gene expression patterns and enzyme substrate specificities. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 217:2201-11. [PMID: 24737760 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.102129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In the genome of Drosophila melanogaster, four genes coding for aldehyde oxidases (AOX1-4) were identified on chromosome 3. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the AOX gene cluster evolved via independent duplication events in the vertebrate and invertebrate lineages. The functional role and the substrate specificity of the distinct Drosophila AOX enzymes is unknown. Two loss-of-function mutant alleles in this gene region, low pyridoxal oxidase (Po(lpo)) and aldehyde oxidase-1 (Aldox-1(n1)) are associated with a phenotype characterized by undetectable AOX enzymatic activity. However, the genes involved and the corresponding mutations have not yet been identified. In this study we characterized the activities, substrate specificities and expression profiles of the four AOX enzymes in D. melanogaster. We show that the Po(lpo)-associated phenotype is the consequence of a structural alteration of the AOX1 gene. We identified an 11-bp deletion in the Po(lpo) allele, resulting in a frame-shift event, which removes the molybdenum cofactor domain of the encoded enzyme. Furthermore, we show that AOX2 activity is detectable only during metamorphosis and characterize a Minos-AOX2 insertion in this developmental gene that disrupts its activity. We demonstrate that the Aldox-1(n1) phenotype maps to the AOX3 gene and AOX4 activity is not detectable in our assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zvonimir Marelja
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Miriam Dambowsky
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Marco Bolis
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, via La Masa 19, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Marina L Georgiou
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Enrico Garattini
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, via La Masa 19, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Fanis Missirlis
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biofísica y Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, Av. IPN 2508, CP 07360 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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Behera D, Pattem R, Gudi G. Effect of commonly used organic solvents on Aldehyde oxidase-mediated Vanillin, Phthalazine and Methotrexate oxidation in human, rat and mouse liver subcellular fractions. Xenobiotica 2014; 44:722-33. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2014.889332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Mu P, Zheng M, Xu M, Zheng Y, Tang X, Wang Y, Wu K, Chen Q, Wang L, Deng Y. N-Oxide Reduction of Quinoxaline-1,4-Dioxides Catalyzed by Porcine Aldehyde Oxidase SsAOX1. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 42:511-9. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.113.055418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Metabolism is one of the most important clearance pathways representing the major clearance route of 75% drugs. The four most common drug metabolizing enzymes (DME) that contribute significantly to elimination pathways of new chemical entities are cytochrome P450s, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, aldehyde oxidase and sulfotransferases. Accurate prediction of human in vivo clearance by these enzymes, using both in vitro and in vivo tools, is critical for the success of drug candidates in human translation. AREAS COVERED Important recent advances of key DME are reviewed and highlighted in the following areas: major isoforms, tissue distribution, generic polymorphism, substrate specificity, species differences, mechanism of catalysis, in vitro-in vivo extrapolation and the importance of using optimal assay conditions and relevant animal models. EXPERT OPINION Understanding the clearance mechanism of a compound is the first step toward successful prediction of human clearance. It is critical to apply appropriate in vitro and in vivo methodologies and physiologically based models in human translation. While high-confidence prediction for P450-mediated clearance has been achieved, the accuracy of human clearance prediction is significantly lower for other enzyme classes. More accurate predictive methods and models are being developed to address these challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Di
- Pfizer, Inc., Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism , Groton, CT 06340 , USA +1 860 715 6172 ;
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