Effects of Soil Properties and Land Use Types on the Bioaccessibility of Cd, Pb, Cr, and Cu in Dongguan City, China

Using machine learning to predict soil lead relative bioavailability

Although the relative bioavailability (RBA) can be applied to assess the effects of Pb on human health, there is no definition and no specific data of Pb-RBA to different soil sources and endpoints in vivo. In this study, we estimated the Pb-RBA from different soil sources and endpoints based on machine learning. The Pb-BAc and Pb-RBA in soils were found to be mostly in the range of 20-80 %, which is different from the USEPA Pb-RBA of 60 % in soils. The mean Pb-RBA for different biological endpoints in vivo predicted using the RF model were 49.94 ± 18.65 % for blood; 60.15 ± 26.62 %, kidney; 60.90 ± 21.51 %, liver; 50.70 ± 17.56 %, femur; and 62.89 ± 16.64 % as a combined measure. Pb-RBA of shooting range soils was 88.21 ± 16.92 % (mean), spiked/aged soils 77.11 ± 14.05 % and certified reference materials 73.70 ± 20.31 %; agricultural soil 68.28 ± 18.93 %, urban soil 64.36 ± 21.82 %, mining/smelting soils 53.99 ± 17.66 %, and industrial soils 47.71 ± 20.35 %. This study is first to define the Pb-RBA according to various soil sources and endpoints in vivo with the objective of providing more accurate Pb-RBA data for soil lead risk assessment.

Prediction of the bioaccessibility and accumulation of cadmium in the soil-rice-human system based on optimized DGT and BCR coupled models

Cadmium, as a typical heavy metal, has the potential to induce soil pollution and threaten human health through the soil-plant-human pathway. The conventional evaluation method based on the total content in soil cannot accurately represent the content migrated from the food chain to plants and the human body. Previous studies focused on the process of plant enrichment of heavy metals in soil, and very few studies directly predicted human exposure or risk through the labile state of Cd in soil. Hence, a relatively accurate and convenient prediction model of Cd release and translocation in the soil-rice-human system was developed. This model utilizes available Cd and soil parameters to predict the bioavailability of Cd in soil, as well as the in vitro bioaccessibility of Cd in cooked rice. The bioavailability of Cd was determined by the Diffusive Gradients in Thin-films technology and BCR sequential extraction procedure, offering in-situ quantification, which presents a significant advantage over traditional monitoring methods and aligns closely with the actual uptake of heavy metals by plants. The experimental results show that the prediction model based on the concentration of heavy metal forms measured by BCR sequential extraction procedure and diffusive gradients in thin-films technique can accurately predict the Cd uptake in rice grains, gastric and gastrointestinal phase (R2=0.712, 0.600 and 0.629). This model accurately predicts Cd bioavailability and bioaccessibility across the soil-rice-human pathway, informing actual human Cd intake, offering scientific support for developing more effective risk assessment methods.

Bioavailability (BA)-based risk assessment of soil heavy metals in provinces of China through the predictive BA-models

The real biological effect is not generated by the total content of heavy metals (HMs), but rather by bioavailable content. A new bioavailability-based ecological risk assessment (BA-based ERA) framework was developed for deriving bioavailability-based soil quality criteria (BA-based SQC) and accurately assessing the ecological risk of soil HMs at a multi-regional scale in this study. Through the random forest (RF) models and BA-based ERA framework, the 217 BA-based SQC for HMs in 31 Chinese provinces were derived and the BA-based ERA was comprehensively assessed. This study found that bioavailable HMs extraction methods (BHEMs) and total HMs content play the predominant role in affecting HMs (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) bioavailability by explaining 27.55-56.11% and 9.20-62.09% of the variation, respectively. The RF model had accurate and stable prediction ability for the bioavailability of soil HMs with the mean R2 and RMSE of 0.83 and 0.43 for the test set, respectively. The results of BA-based ERA showed that bioavailability could avoid the overestimation of ecological risks to some extent after reducing the uncertainty of soil differences. This study confirmed the feasibility of using bioavailability for ERA and will utilised to revise the soil environmental standards based on bioavailability for HMs.

Total contents, fractionation and bioaccessibility of nine heavy metals in household dust from 14 cities in China

The potential health risk caused by long-term exposure to heavy metals in household dust is not only depended on their total content, but also bioaccessibility. In this study, twenty-one dust samples were collected from residential buildings, schools, and laboratories in 14 provincial-capital/industrial cities of China, aiming to evaluate the total contents, fractionation, bioaccessibility and health risks of nine heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Mn, Zn, Fe, and Cu). Results showed that the highest levels of Cd, Cr, Ni and Zn were found in laboratory dust, As, Pb and Mn in school dust, and Fe and Cu in residential dust, indicating different source profiles of the heavy metals. The mean bioaccessibility of the heavy metals across all samples as evaluated using SBRC (Solubility Bioavailability Research Consortium), IVG (In Vitro Gastrointestinal), and PBET (Physiologically Based Extraction Test) assays was 58.4%, 32.4% and 17.2% in gastric phase (GP), and 24.9%, 21.9% and 9.39% in intestinal phase (IP), respectively. Cadmium had the highest content in the fractions of E1+C2 (43.7%), as determined by sequential extraction, and Pb, Mn, and Zn had a higher content in E1+C2+F3 (64.2%, 67.2%, 78.8%), resulting in a higher bioaccessibility of these heavy metals than others. Moreover, the bioaccessibility of most heavy metals was inversely related to dust pH (R = -0.18 in GP; -0.18 in IP; P < 0.01) and particle size, while a positive correlation was observed with total organic carbon (R = 0.40 in GP; 0.38 in IP; P < 0.01). The exposure risk calculated by the highest bioaccessibility was generally lower than that calculated by the total content. However, Pb in one school dust sample had an unacceptable carcinogenic risk (adult risk = 1.19 × 10-4; child risk = 1.08 × 10-4). This study suggests that bioaccessibility of heavy metals in household dust is likely related to geochemical fractions and physical/chemical properties. Further research is needed to explore the sources of bioaccessible heavy metals in household dust.

Oral bioaccessibility of PTEs in soils: A review of data, influencing factors and application in human health risk assessment

Understanding the behavior of metal(loi)ds transported from soil to humans is critical for human health risk assessment (HHRA). In the last two decades, extensive studies have been conducted to better assess human exposure to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) by estimating their oral bioaccessibility (BAc) and quantifying the influence of different factors. This study reviews the common in vitro methods used to determine the BAc of PTEs (in particular As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Sb) under specific conditions (particularly in terms of the particle size fraction and validation status against an in vivo model). The results were compiled from soils derived from various sources and allowed the identification of the most important influencing factors of BAc (using single and multiple regression analyses), including physicochemical soil properties and the speciation of the PTEs in question. This review presents current knowledge on integrating relative bioavailability (RBA) in calculating doses from soil ingestion in the HHRA process. Depending on the jurisdiction, validated or non-validated bioaccessibility methods were used, and risks assessors applied different approaches: (i) using default assumptions (i.e., RBA of 1); (ii) considering that bioaccessibility value (BAc) accurately represents RBA (i.e., RBA equal to BAc); (iii) using regression models to convert BAc of As and Pb into RBA as proposed by the USA with the US EPA Method 1340; or (iv) applying an adjustment factor as proposed by the Netherlands and France to use BAc from UBM (Unified Barge Method) protocol. The findings from this review should help inform risk stakeholders about the uncertainties surrounding using bioaccessibility data and provide recommendations for better interpreting the results and using bioaccessibility in risk studies.

Stabilization of cadmium in a fluvo-aquic soil-Chinese chive system using loess and chicken manure compost

The stabilization of heavy metals in soil has been increasingly applied in China in recent years due to its quick effect and low cost. In this study, loess and chicken manure compost (a commercial organic fertilizer) were used to stabilize Cd in slightly polluted fluvo-aquic soil from the North China Plain, and the driving factors for stabilization were investigated through ridge regression. The additives significantly reduced the total concentration of Cd in soil through dilution. The addition of loess and compost increased carbonates and organic matter in soil, respectively. This caused exchangeable Cd to be transformed to fractions bound to carbonates or organic matter, thereby decreasing the concentration of Cd in the roots and leaves of Chinese chive. The decreasing exchangeable Cd in soil was the direct cause of decreased uptake of Cd by plants, and the increasing fractions bound to carbonates or organic matter were indirect influencing factors. However, adding loess decreased soil fertility and retarded plant growth. The addition of compost compensated for these defects. This study suggests that the combined addition of loess and chicken manure compost was able to effectively reduce the total concentration and phytoavailability of Cd in soil and guarantee crop yield and quality.

A global meta-analysis of the correlation between soil physicochemical properties and lead bioaccessibility

Soil physiochemical properties play a vital role in bioaccessibility-based health risk assessment as it can determine the bioaccessibility and the true risk of potentially toxic elements in soil. However, the effects of soil properties on bioaccessibility still remains unclear. In this paper, 17 of the 1454 literatures with 474 samples were identified, screened and reviewed for exploring the correlation between soil physicochemical properties and lead bioaccessibility (BAc_Pb) through a meta-analysis approach. Five soil physicochemical parameters including pH, SOM, Clay, CEC and T-Pb were systematically analyzed using Principal component analysis, Pearson correlation analysis and survival analysis. The results showed that pH of simulated gastric juice is a major source of heterogeneity of the correlation between soil pH and BAc_Pb. In the gastric phase, the effect of alkaline soil on high BAc_Pb (BAc >50%) is more sensitive, and the effect of acidic soil on low BAc_Pb (BAc <50%) is more sensitive. However, in the small intestinal phase, soil pH displays little impacts on BAc_Pb in acidic, alkaline and neutral soils. Although three principal components explained 66.2% and 64.9% of the total variance of the urban, agricultural, and mining soils in gastric and small intestinal phases, respectively, there was no strong evidence that soil type can influence the BAc_Pb. The results of present study provide insights into the correlation between soil properties and BAc_Pb, and prediction of the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of Pb in different types of soil.

Effects of soil pH and organic carbon content on in vitro Cr bioaccessibility in Ultisol, Alfisol, and Inceptisol

Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is a toxic heavy metal and its mobility and bioaccessibility in soils are influenced by soil properties. In this study, the soil pH and organic carbon contents of Ultisol, Alfisol, and Inceptisol were adjusted before they were polluted with 230 mg kg^-1 Cr(VI). Alkaline digestion, sequential extraction, and an in vitro experiment were conducted to study the valence state, species, and bioaccessibility of Cr in the soils. The results showed that a high soil pH was not favorable for reduction of Cr(VI); therefore the Cr(VI) and exchangeable Cr contents were positively related to soil pH. Soil organic carbon promoted the reduction of Cr(VI). Almost all Cr(VI) was reduced to Cr(III) when the soil organic carbon content reached 10 g kg^-1. Chromium bioaccessibility in simulated gastric and intestinal phase solutions was influenced by Cr(VI) and Cr(III) adsorption/desorption, dissolution/precipitation, and redox reactions. Chromium bioaccessibility differences between the gastric and intestinal phases were associated with the Cr(VI)/Cr(III) ratio. Acidic conditions and a high organic carbon content promoted the conversion of Cr(VI) to Cr(III). When soil pH was increased from 4.01 to 5.85, Cr(VI) in Alfisol without the addition of humic acid increased from 96.38 to 174.78 mg kg^-1, the exchangeable Cr proportion increased from 9.7% to 22.6%, and Cr bioaccessibility increased from 41.29% to 49.14% in the gastric phase and from 41.32% to 48.24% in the intestinal phase. When the organic content increased from 3.95 to 9.28 g kg^-1 in Alfisol, Cr(VI) content decreased from 167.66 to 20.52 mg kg^-1, which led to a decrease in Cr bioaccessibility from 49.15% to 13.8% in the gastric phase and from 45.85% to 7.67% in the intestinal phase. Therefore, acidic conditions and increasing soil organic carbon levels can reduce the health risk posed by Cr in soils.

Changes in molybdenum bioaccessibility in four spiked soils with respect to soil pH and organic matter

Investigation of the inherent relationship between soil physicochemical properties and pollutant's bioaccessibility (BAc) by analyzing different soil types may produce erroneous results or bias, owing to the complexity of natural soil characteristics. However, use of single factor analysis (e.g., soil pH, organic matter) facilitates evaluation of the transition. In this study, the inherent relationship between soil properties and the BAc of molybdenum (Mo) was evaluated in two typical variable-charge soils (Ferralosol and Ferrosol) and constant-charge soils (Alfisol and Inceptisol) spiked with Mo after adjusting their pH and organic carbon content. The Unified Bioaccessibility Research Group of Europe (BARGE) Method (UBM) was applied to evaluate the BAc of Mo in the gastric and intestinal phase (GP and IP, respectively). Isothermal adsorption experiment, Tessier sequential extraction, and field emission scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive spectroscopy (FESEM-EDS) analysis were conducted on these spiked soils. The results indicated that the BAc of Mo in IP (27.42-80.41%) was significantly higher than that in GP (2.52-28.53%). A significantly lower level of BAc of Mo was found in the variable-charge soils, when compared with that in the constant-charge soils. Furthermore, significant negative correlations were identified between the BAc and adsorption of Mo, which decreased with soil pH. These negative correlations can be attributed to the increase in soil negative charge density and enhancement of Mo desorption by hydroxyl, which reinforce the repulsion between Mo and soil particles with increasing soil pH; this was further confirmed by the decrease in Mo adsorption with Alfisol pH. The Mo fractions and FESEM-EDS patterns confirmed that the BAc of Mo in GP was negatively correlated with soil organic carbon (SOC) content, possibly owing to an increase in Mo retention by SOC. These findings indicated that the health risk of Mo contamination in low pH and SOC-rich variable-charge soil is relatively low, thus providing references for rationalizing risk assessment and remediating Mo-polluted soil.

Climatic CO2 level-driven changes in the bioavailability, accumulation, and health risks of Cd and Pb in paddy soil-rice systems

Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) and soil heavy metal pollution, which affects safe rice production and soil ecosystem stability, have caused widespread concern. In this study, we evaluated the effects of elevated CO₂ on Cd and Pb accumulation in rice plants (Oryza sativa L.), Cd and Pb bioavailability, and soil bacterial communities in Cd-Pb co-contaminated paddy soils via rice pot experiments. We showed that elevated CO₂ accelerates the accumulation of Cd and Pb in rice grains by 48.4-75.4% and 20.5-39.1%, respectively. Elevated CO₂ levels decreased soil pH value by 0.2 units, which increased Cd and Pb bioavailability in soil but inhibited iron plaque formation on rice roots, ultimately promoting Cd and Pb uptake. 16S rRNA sequencing analysis revealed that elevated CO₂ increased the relative abundance of certain soil bacteria (e.g., Acidobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, Holophagae, and Burkholderiaceae). A health risk assessment showed that elevated CO₂ markedly increased the total carcinogenic risk values for children, adult males, and adult females by 75.3% (P < 0.05), 65.6% (P < 0.05), and 71.1% (P < 0.05), respectively. These results demonstrate the serious performance of elevated CO₂ levels in accelerating the bioavailability and accumulation of Cd and Pb in paddy soil-rice ecosystems, with particular risks for future safe rice production.

Green synthesized hydroxyapatite for efficient immobilization of cadmium in weakly alkaline environment

The development of cost-effective passivators for the remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils has been a research hotspot and an unsolved challenge. Herein, a novel hydroxyapatite (GSCH) was synthesized by co-precipitating distiller effluent-derived Ca with (NH₄)₂HPO₄ using straw-derived dissolved organic matter (S-DOM) as the dispersant. Batch adsorption experiments and soil incubation tests were performed to assess the immobilization efficiency of GSCH for Cd in weakly alkaline environments. As a result, GSCH showed an excellent adsorption efficiency to Cd with a maximum adsorption amount of ∼222 mg g^-1, which was fairly competitive compared to other similar previously materials reported. The kinetic data indicated that the adsorption of Cd on GSCH was a chemical and irreversible process, while the thermodynamic data revealed a spontaneous (ΔG° < 0) and endothermic (ΔH° > 0) adsorption process. Based on mechanism analysis, both physisorption (e.g., electrostatic attraction and pore filling) and chemisorption (e.g., ion exchange and complexation) were responsible for Cd adsorption on GSCH. Particularly, the incorporated S-DOM and hydroxyapatite phase in GSCH acted synergistically in the adsorption process. The incubation results showed that GSCH application could significantly reduce the bioavailability, phytoavailability and bioaccessibility of Cd in soil by 48.4%-57.8%, 20.4%-28.6% and 12.6%-24.0%, respectively. Moreover, GSCH application also improved soil bacterial communities and enhanced soil nutrient availability. Overall, this is the first study to demonstrate the potential application value of GSCH in Cd immobilization, providing promising insights into the development of green and cost-effective hydroxyapatite-based passivators for the remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils.

First-principle study on the stability of Cd passivates in soil

The stable existence of heavy metals in soil under natural conditions is the core issue in heavy metal pollution solidification and remediation technology. However, the existing research is limited to soil passivation tests of different materials or biochar adsorption tests and cannot reveal the internal mechanism of functional groups of different compounds in soil passivation. This paper takes the common heavy metal ion Cd2+ as an example to analyze the stability of the combination of heavy metal ions and common ion groups in soil. The stability and existing form of Cd are analyzed by using first-principle calculations, and the free energy, band structure, and partial density of states of CdCO3, CdSO4, CdCl2, and CdSiO3 are computed. The stability of Cd binding to common anions in soil is determined. Results show the descending order of structural stability of cadmium compounds is CdSiO3, CdSO4, CdCO3, and CdCl2. SO42- and SiO32- can be used as preferred functional groups for cadmium pollution passivation. Anhydrous sodium sulfate and sodium silicate are promising passivators.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their derivatives (oxygenated PAHs, azaarenes, and sulfur / oxygen-containing heterocyclic PAHs) in surface soils from a typical city, south China

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons derivatives (dPAHs) were reported to be more mutagenic than parent analogues, however, studies that involving dPAHs in environmental samples are still limited. Thirty-six polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs; 17 parent PAHs, 1 alkyl-PAH, 6 oxygenated PAHs, 6 azaarenes, 3 sulfur-containing heterocyclic PAHs, and 3 oxygen-containing heterocyclic PAHs) were analyzed in n = 100 surface soil samples collected from a prefecture-level city (hereafter referred to as D city) in South China, in the year 2019. Total concentrations of 36 PACs ranged from 3.61 to 4930 ng g^-1 with a median concentration of 86.1 ng g^-1. Regardless of functional zones, parent PAHs were the most abundant with the proportion of 78.9%, followed by oxygenated PAHs accounting for 16.8%, whereas contents of heterocyclic PAHs were far below the formers. Besides, PAHs with 4-6 rings were the most prevalent components. Among the five functional zones, industrial zone was contaminated most severely with a mean sum PAC concentration of 485 ng g^-1, implying effects of long-term industrial emission. Total PAC concentrations in scenic and agricultural zones were significantly lower than those in industrial and residential zones. On the basis of PMF calculation, we proposed that traffic emission and biomass combustion could be responsible for PAC contamination. According to total lifetime cancer risk index, it suggested that there could be slightly health risks for children following exposure to PACs in some places.