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Břehová P, Chaloupecká E, Česnek M, Skácel J, Dračínský M, Tloušťová E, Mertlíková-Kaiserová H, Soto-Velasquez MP, Watts VJ, Janeba Z. Acyclic nucleoside phosphonates with 2-aminothiazole base as inhibitors of bacterial and mammalian adenylate cyclases. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 222:113581. [PMID: 34102377 PMCID: PMC8373703 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A series of novel acyclic nucleoside phosphonates (ANPs) was synthesized as potential adenylate cyclase inhibitors, where the adenine nucleobase of adefovir (PMEA) was replaced with a 5-substituted 2-aminothiazole moiety. The design was based on the structure of MB05032, a potent and selective inhibitor of fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase and a good mimic of adenosine monophosphate (AMP). From the series of eighteen novel ANPs, which were prepared as phosphoroamidate prodrugs, fourteen compounds were potent (single digit micromolar or submicromolar) inhibitors of Bordetella pertussis adenylate cyclase toxin (ACT), mostly without observed cytotoxicity in J774A.1 macrophage cells. Selected phosphono diphosphates (nucleoside triphosphate analogues) were potent inhibitors of ACT (IC50 as low as 37 nM) and B. anthracis edema factor (IC50 as low as 235 nM) in enzymatic assays. Furthermore, several ANPs were found to be selective mammalian AC1 inhibitors in HEK293 cell-based assays (although with some associated cytotoxicity) and one compound exhibited selective inhibition of mammalian AC2 (only 12% of remaining adenylate cyclase activity) but no observed cytotoxicity. The mammalian AC1 inhibitors may represent potential leads in development of agents for treatment of human inflammatory and neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Břehová
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Czech Academy of Sciences, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Ema Chaloupecká
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Czech Academy of Sciences, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic; Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 8, 128 43, Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Česnek
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Czech Academy of Sciences, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Skácel
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Czech Academy of Sciences, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Dračínský
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Czech Academy of Sciences, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Tloušťová
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Czech Academy of Sciences, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Helena Mertlíková-Kaiserová
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Czech Academy of Sciences, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Monica P Soto-Velasquez
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, 575 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Val J Watts
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, 575 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA.
| | - Zlatko Janeba
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Czech Academy of Sciences, 16610, Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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Pitard I, Monet D, Goossens PL, Blondel A, Malliavin TE. Analyzing In Silico the Relationship Between the Activation of the Edema Factor and Its Interaction With Calmodulin. Front Mol Biosci 2020; 7:586544. [PMID: 33344505 PMCID: PMC7746812 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2020.586544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have been recorded on the complex between the edema factor (EF) of Bacilllus anthracis and calmodulin (CaM), starting from a structure with the orthosteric inhibitor adefovir bound in the EF catalytic site. The starting structure has been destabilized by alternately suppressing different co-factors, such as adefovir ligand or ions, revealing several long-distance correlations between the conformation of CaM, the geometry of the CaM/EF interface, the enzymatic site and the overall organization of the complex. An allosteric communication between CaM/EF interface and the EF catalytic site, highlighted by these correlations, was confirmed by several bioinformatics approaches from the literature. A network of hydrogen bonds and stacking interactions extending from the helix V of of CaM, and the residues of the switches A, B and C, and connecting to catalytic site residues, is a plausible candidate for the mediation of allosteric communication. The greatest variability in volume between the different MD conditions was also found for cavities present at the EF/CaM interface and in the EF catalytic site. The similarity between the predictions from literature and the volume variability might introduce the volume variability as new descriptor of allostery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irène Pitard
- Unité de Bioinformatique Structurale, Institut Pasteur and CNRS UMR 3528, Paris, France.,Center de Bioinformatique, Biostatistique et Biologie Intégrative, Institut Pasteur and CNRS USR 3756, Paris, France.,Ecole Doctorale Université Paris Sorbonne, Paris, France
| | - Damien Monet
- Unité de Bioinformatique Structurale, Institut Pasteur and CNRS UMR 3528, Paris, France.,Center de Bioinformatique, Biostatistique et Biologie Intégrative, Institut Pasteur and CNRS USR 3756, Paris, France.,Ecole Doctorale Université Paris Sorbonne, Paris, France
| | | | - Arnaud Blondel
- Unité de Bioinformatique Structurale, Institut Pasteur and CNRS UMR 3528, Paris, France.,Center de Bioinformatique, Biostatistique et Biologie Intégrative, Institut Pasteur and CNRS USR 3756, Paris, France
| | - Thérèse E Malliavin
- Unité de Bioinformatique Structurale, Institut Pasteur and CNRS UMR 3528, Paris, France.,Center de Bioinformatique, Biostatistique et Biologie Intégrative, Institut Pasteur and CNRS USR 3756, Paris, France
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Pitard I, Malliavin TE. Structural Biology and Molecular Modeling to Analyze the Entry of Bacterial Toxins and Virulence Factors into Host Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060369. [PMID: 31238550 PMCID: PMC6628625 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the functions and mechanisms of biological systems is an outstanding challenge. One way to overcome it is to combine together several approaches such as molecular modeling and experimental structural biology techniques. Indeed, the interplay between structural and dynamical properties of the system is crucial to unravel the function of molecular machinery’s. In this review, we focus on how molecular simulations along with structural information can aid in interpreting biological data. Here, we examine two different cases: (i) the endosomal translocation toxins (diphtheria, tetanus, botulinum toxins) and (ii) the activation of adenylyl cyclase inside the cytoplasm (edema factor, CyA, ExoY).
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Affiliation(s)
- Irène Pitard
- Unité de Bioinformatique Structurale, Institut Pasteur and CNRS UMR3528, 75015 Paris, France.
- Centre de Bioinformatique, Biostatistique et Biologie Intégrative, Institut Pasteur and CNRS USR3756, 75015 Paris, France.
- Sorbonne Université, Collège Doctoral, Ecole Doctorale Complexité du Vivant, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Thérèse E Malliavin
- Unité de Bioinformatique Structurale, Institut Pasteur and CNRS UMR3528, 75015 Paris, France.
- Centre de Bioinformatique, Biostatistique et Biologie Intégrative, Institut Pasteur and CNRS USR3756, 75015 Paris, France.
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Frydrych J, Skácel J, Šmídková M, Mertlíková-Kaiserová H, Dračínský M, Gnanasekaran R, Lepšík M, Soto-Velasquez M, Watts VJ, Janeba Z. Synthesis of α-Branched Acyclic Nucleoside Phosphonates as Potential Inhibitors of Bacterial Adenylate Cyclases. ChemMedChem 2018; 13:199-206. [PMID: 29235265 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201700715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Revised: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of Bordetella pertussis adenylate cyclase toxin (ACT) and Bacillus anthracis edema factor (EF), key virulence factors with adenylate cyclase activity, represents a potential method for treating or preventing toxemia related to whooping cough and anthrax, respectively. Novel α-branched acyclic nucleoside phosphonates (ANPs) having a hemiaminal ether moiety were synthesized as potential inhibitors of bacterial adenylate cyclases. ANPs prepared as bisamidates were not cytotoxic, but did not exhibit any profound activity (IC50 >10 μm) toward ACT in J774A.1 macrophages. The apparent lack of activity of the bisamidates is speculated to be due to the inefficient formation of the biologically active species (ANPpp) in the cells. Conversely, two 5-haloanthraniloyl-substituted ANPs in the form of diphosphates were shown to be potent ACT and EF inhibitors with IC50 values ranging from 55 to 362 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Frydrych
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Skácel
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Markéta Šmídková
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Helena Mertlíková-Kaiserová
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Dračínský
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Ramachandran Gnanasekaran
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10, Prague 6, Czech Republic.,Current address: Department of Chemistry, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, 605014, India
| | - Martin Lepšík
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Monica Soto-Velasquez
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, 575 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Val J Watts
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Purdue University, 575 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Zlatko Janeba
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 166 10, Prague 6, Czech Republic
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Ohanjanian L, Remy KE, Li Y, Cui X, Eichacker PQ. An overview of investigational toxin-directed therapies for the adjunctive management of Bacillus anthracis infection and sepsis. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2015; 24:851-65. [PMID: 25920540 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2015.1041587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Sepsis with Bacillus anthracis infection has a very high mortality rate despite appropriate antibiotic and supportive therapies. Over the past 15 years, recent outbreaks in the US and in Europe, coupled with anthrax's bioterrorism weapon potential, have stimulated efforts to develop adjunctive therapies to improve clinical outcomes. Since lethal toxin and edema toxin (LT and ET) make central contributions to the pathogenesis of B. anthracis, these have been major targets in this effort. AREAS COVERED Here, the authors review different investigative biopharmaceuticals that have been recently identified for their therapeutic potential as inhibitors of LT or ET. Among these inhibitors are two antibody preparations that have been included in the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) and several more that have reached Phase I testing. Presently, however, many of these candidate agents have only been studied in vitro and very few tested in bacteria-challenged models. EXPERT OPINION Although a large number of drugs have been identified as potential therapeutic inhibitors of LT and ET, in most cases their testing has been limited. The use of the two SNS antibody therapies during a large-scale exposure to B. anthracis will be difficult. Further testing and development of agents with oral bioavailability and relatively long shelf lives should be a focus for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lernik Ohanjanian
- National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center, Critical Care Medicine Department , Building 10, Room 2C145, Bethesda, MD 20892 , USA +1 301 402 2914 ; +1 301 402 1213 ;
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Present-day rational drug design approaches are based on exploiting unique features of the target biomolecules, small- or macromolecule drug candidates and physical forces that govern their interactions. The 2013 Nobel Prize in chemistry awarded 'for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems' once again demonstrated the importance of the tailored drug discovery that reduces the role of the trial-and-error approach to a minimum. The intentional dissemination of Bacillus anthracis spores in 2001 via the so-called anthrax letters has led to increased efforts, politically and scientifically, to develop medical countermeasures that will protect people from the threat of anthrax bioterrorism. AREAS COVERED This article provides an overview of the recent rational drug design approaches for discovering inhibitors of anthrax toxin. The review also directs the readers to the vast literature on the recognized advances and future possibilities in the field. EXPERT OPINION Existing options to combat anthrax toxin lethality are limited. With the only anthrax toxin inhibiting therapy (protective antigen-targeting with a monoclonal antibody, raxibacumab) approved to treat inhalational anthrax, the situation, in our view, is still insecure. Further, the FDA's animal rule for drug approval, which clears compounds without validated efficacy studies on humans, creates a high level of uncertainty, especially when a well-characterized animal model does not exist. Better identification and validation of anthrax toxin therapeutic targets at the molecular level as well as elucidation of the parameters determining the corresponding therapeutic windows are still necessary for more effective therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina M Nestorovich
- The Catholic University of America, Department of Biology , Washington, DC , USA +1 202 319 6723 ;
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Seifert R, Dove S. Inhibitors of Bacillus anthracis edema factor. Pharmacol Ther 2013; 140:200-12. [PMID: 23850654 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Edema factor (EF) is a calmodulin (CaM)-activated adenylyl cyclase (AC) toxin from Bacillus anthracis that contributes to anthrax pathogenesis. Anthrax is an important medical problem, but treatment of B. anthracis infections is still unsatisfying. Thus, selective EF inhibitors could be valuable drugs in the treatment of anthrax infection, most importantly shock. The catalytic site of EF, the EF/CaM interaction site and allosteric sites constitute potential drug targets. To this end, most efforts have been directed towards targeting the catalytic site. A major challenge in the field is to obtain compounds with high selectivity for AC toxins relative to mammalian membranous ACs (mACs). 3'-(N-methyl)anthraniloyl-2'-deoxyadenosine-5'-triphosphate is the most potent EF inhibitor known so far (Ki, 10nM), but selectivity relative to mACs needs to be improved (currently ~5-50-fold, depending on the specific mAC isoform considered). AC toxin inhibitors can be identified in virtual screening studies based on available EF crystal structures and examined in cellular test systems or at the level of purified toxin using classic radioisotopic or non-radioactive fluorescence assays. Binding of certain MANT-nucleotides to AC toxins elicits large direct fluorescence- or fluorescence resonance energy transfer signals upon interaction with CaM, and these signals can be used to identify toxin inhibitors in competition binding studies. Collectively, potent EF inhibitors are available, but before they can be used clinically, selectivity against mACs must be improved. However, several methodological approaches, complementing each other, are now available to direct the development of potent, selective, orally applicable and clinically useful EF inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Seifert
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical School of Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany.
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Abstract
Antibiotic treatment may fail to protect individuals, if not started early enough, after infection with Bacillus anthracis, due to the continuing activity of toxins that the bacterium produces. Stable and easily stored inhibitors of the edema factor toxin (EF), an adenylyl cyclase, could save lives in the event of an outbreak, due to natural causes or a bioweapon attack. The toxin’s basic activity is to convert ATP to cAMP, and it is thus in principle a simple phosphatase, which means that many mammalian enzymes, including intracellular adenylcyclases, may have a similar activity. While nucleotide based inhibitors, similar to its natural substrate, ATP, were identified early, these compounds had low activity and specificity for EF. We used a combined structural and computational approach to choose small organic molecules in large, web-based compound libraries that would, based on docking scores, bind to residues within the substrate binding pocket of EF. A family of fluorenone-based inhibitors was identified that inhibited the release of cAMP from cells treated with EF. The lead inhibitor was also shown to inhibit the diarrhea caused by enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) in a murine model, perhaps by serving as a quorum sensor. These inhibitors are now being tested for their ability to inhibit Anthrax infection in animal models and may have use against other pathogens that produce toxins similar to EF, such as Bordetella pertussis or Vibrio cholera.
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Laine É, Martínez L, Ladant D, Malliavin T, Blondel A. Molecular motions as a drug target: mechanistic simulations of anthrax toxin edema factor function led to the discovery of novel allosteric inhibitors. Toxins (Basel) 2012; 4:580-604. [PMID: 23012649 PMCID: PMC3446745 DOI: 10.3390/toxins4080580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Revised: 07/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Edema Factor (EF) is a component of Bacillus anthracis toxin essential for virulence. Its adenylyl cyclase activity is induced by complexation with the ubiquitous eukaryotic cellular protein, calmodulin (CaM). EF and its complexes with CaM, nucleotides and/or ions, have been extensively characterized by X-ray crystallography. Those structural data allowed molecular simulations analysis of various aspects of EF action mechanism, including the delineation of EF and CaM domains through their association energetics, the impact of calcium binding on CaM, and the role of catalytic site ions. Furthermore, a transition path connecting the free inactive form to the CaM-complexed active form of EF was built to model the activation mechanism in an attempt to define an inhibition strategy. The cavities at the surface of EF were determined for each path intermediate to identify potential sites where the binding of a ligand could block activation. A non-catalytic cavity (allosteric) was found to shrink rapidly at early stages of the path and was chosen to perform virtual screening. Amongst 18 compounds selected in silico and tested in an enzymatic assay, 6 thiophen ureidoacid derivatives formed a new family of EF allosteric inhibitors with IC50 as low as 2 micromolars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Élodie Laine
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Pharmacologie Appliquée, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan, 61, avenue du Président Wilson, 94235 Cachan cedex, France;
| | - Leandro Martínez
- The Molecular Biotechnology Group, Institute of Physics of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador Sãocarlense, 400, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil;
| | - Daniel Ladant
- Unité de Biochimie des Interactions Macromoléculaires and CNRS UMR 3528, Département de Biologie Structurale et Chimie, Institut Pasteur, 28, rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France;
| | - Thérèse Malliavin
- Unité de Bioinformatique Structurale and CNRS UMR 3528, Département de Biologie Structurale et Chimie, Institut Pasteur, 25, rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France;
| | - Arnaud Blondel
- Unité de Bioinformatique Structurale and CNRS UMR 3528, Département de Biologie Structurale et Chimie, Institut Pasteur, 25, rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France;
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Göttle M, Dove S, Seifert R. Bacillus anthracis edema factor substrate specificity: evidence for new modes of action. Toxins (Basel) 2012; 4:505-35. [PMID: 22852066 PMCID: PMC3407890 DOI: 10.3390/toxins4070505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the isolation of Bacillus anthracis exotoxins in the 1960s, the detrimental activity of edema factor (EF) was considered as adenylyl cyclase activity only. Yet the catalytic site of EF was recently shown to accomplish cyclization of cytidine 5'-triphosphate, uridine 5'-triphosphate and inosine 5'-triphosphate, in addition to adenosine 5'-triphosphate. This review discusses the broad EF substrate specificity and possible implications of intracellular accumulation of cyclic cytidine 3':5'-monophosphate, cyclic uridine 3':5'-monophosphate and cyclic inosine 3':5'-monophosphate on cellular functions vital for host defense. In particular, cAMP-independent mechanisms of action of EF on host cell signaling via protein kinase A, protein kinase G, phosphodiesterases and CNG channels are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Göttle
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, 6302 Woodruff Memorial Research Building, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +1-404-727-1678; Fax: +1-404-727-3157
| | - Stefan Dove
- Department of Medicinal/Pharmaceutical Chemistry II, University of Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany;
| | - Roland Seifert
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical School of Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany;
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Seifert R, Lushington GH, Mou TC, Gille A, Sprang SR. Inhibitors of membranous adenylyl cyclases. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2011; 33:64-78. [PMID: 22100304 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2011.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2011] [Revised: 10/18/2011] [Accepted: 10/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Membranous adenylyl cyclases (mACs) constitute a family of nine isoforms with different expression patterns. Studies with mAC gene knockout mice provide evidence for the notion that AC isoforms play distinct (patho)physiological roles. Consequently, there is substantial interest in the development of isoform-selective mAC inhibitors. Here, we review the current literature on mAC inhibitors. Structurally diverse inhibitors targeting the catalytic site and allosteric sites (e.g. the diterpene site) have been identified. The catalytic site of mACs accommodates both purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, with a hydrophobic pocket constituting a major affinity-conferring domain for substituents at the 2'- and 3'-O-ribosyl position of nucleotides. BODIPY-forskolin stimulates ACs 1 and 5 but inhibits AC2. However, so far, no inhibitor has been examined at all mAC isoforms, and data obtained with mAC inhibitors in intact cells have not always been interpreted cautiously enough. Future strategies for the development of the mAC inhibitor field are discussed critically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Seifert
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical School of Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Strasse 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany.
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