1
|
Che P, Davidson JT, Still K, Kool J, Kohler I. In vitro metabolism of cathinone positional isomers: does sex matter? Anal Bioanal Chem 2023; 415:5403-5420. [PMID: 37452840 PMCID: PMC10444680 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04815-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones, one of the most prevalent categories of new psychoactive substances, have been posing a serious threat to public health. Methylmethcathinones (MMCs), notably 3-MMC, have seen an alarming increase in their use in the last decade. The metabolism and toxicology of a large majority of synthetic cathinones, including 3-MMC and 2-MMC, remain unknown. Traditionally, male-derived liver materials have been used as in vitro metabolic incubations to investigate the metabolism of xenobiotics, including MMCs. Therefore, little is known about the metabolism in female-derived in vitro models and the potential sex-specific differences in biotransformation. In this study, the metabolism of 2-MMC, 3-MMC, and 4-MMC was investigated using female rat and human liver microsomal incubations, as well as male rat and human liver microsomal incubations. A total of 25 phase I metabolites of MMCs were detected and tentatively identified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Seven sex-specific metabolites were detected exclusively using pooled male rat liver microsomal incubations. In addition, the metabolites generated from the sex-dependent in vitro metabolic incubations that were present in both male and female rat liver microsomal incubations showed differences in relative abundance. Yet, neither sex-specific metabolites nor significant differences in relative abundance were observed from pooled human liver microsomal incubations. This is the first study to report the phase I metabolic pathways of MMCs using in vitro metabolic incubations for both male and female liver microsomes, and the relative abundance of the metabolites observed from each sex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Che
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J Tyler Davidson
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX, USA
| | - Kristina Still
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Isabelle Kohler
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Center for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kok EA, den Besten-Bertholee D, van Berkel S, Larmené-Beld KHM. Detection and Identification of an Unknown Impurity in Ephedrine HCl 5 mg/mL Cyclic Olefin Syringes: Formulation Development. AAPS PharmSciTech 2023; 24:140. [PMID: 37349566 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-023-02602-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023] Open
Abstract
An unknown impurity was detected in in-house prepared ephedrine hydrochloride (HCl) 5 mg/mL prefilled sterilized syringes when applying a stability-indicating British Pharmacopoeia 2018 impurity method for ephedrine injection. Ultraviolet, chromatographic, mass spectral, and physicochemical methods were combined to identify the unknown impurity. The unknown impurity was identified as methcathinone, which is generated from ephedrine drug substance through an oxidation reaction. A formulation study, in which different process adjustments were tested, was carried out to reduce the amount of unknown impurity. Nitrogen gassing in combination with 0.05 M citrate buffer addition proved to be the most potent process adjustment in reducing methcathinone formation in ephedrine HCl 5 mg/mL prefilled sterilized syringes after 4 months of storage in the dark at room temperature (20 °C ± 5 °C). More detailed research on the long-term stability of the reformulated ephedrine HCl drug product is currently underway, with promising results for up to 9 months gathered already.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ellen A Kok
- Unit of Pharmacotherapy, -Epidemiology, and -Economics, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, 9713 AV, Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Isala Hospital, 8025 AB, Zwolle, Overijssel, the Netherlands
| | | | - Stefan van Berkel
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Isala Hospital, 8025 AB, Zwolle, Overijssel, the Netherlands
| | - Karin H M Larmené-Beld
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Isala Hospital, 8025 AB, Zwolle, Overijssel, the Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wronikowska-Denysiuk O, Michalak A, Pankowska A, Kurach Ł, Kozioł P, Łazorczyk A, Kochalska K, Targowska-Duda K, Boguszewska-Czubara A, Budzyńska B. Relationship between GABA-Ergic System and the Expression of Mephedrone-Induced Reward in Rats-Behavioral, Chromatographic and In Vivo Imaging Study. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:9958. [PMID: 37373105 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24129958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone is a psychoactive drug that increases dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline levels in the central nervous system via interaction with transporters or monoamines. The aim of the presented study was to assess the role of the GABA-ergic system in the expression of mephedrone-induced reward. For this purpose, we conducted (a) a behavioral evaluation of the impact of baclofen (a GABAB receptors agonist) and GS39783 (a positive allosteric modulator of GABAB receptors) on the expression of mephedrone-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) in rats, (b) an ex vivo chromatographic determination of the GABA level in the hippocampi of rats subchronically treated with mephedrone and (c) an in vivo evaluation of GABA hippocampal concentration in rats subchronically administered with mephedrone using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). The results show that GS39783 (but not baclofen) blocked the expression of CPP induced by (20 mg/kg of) mephedrone. The behavioral effect was consistent with chromatographic analysis, which showed that mephedrone (5 and 20 mg/kg) led to a decrease in GABA hippocampal concentration. Altogether, the presented study provides a new insight into the involvement of the GABA-ergic system in the rewarding effects of mephedrone, implying that those effects are at least partially mediated through GABAB receptors, which suggests their potential role as new targets for the pharmacological management of mephedrone use disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olga Wronikowska-Denysiuk
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Chair of Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Michalak
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Chair of Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Pankowska
- Department of Radiography, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Street, 20-081 Lublin, Poland
| | - Łukasz Kurach
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Chair of Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Paulina Kozioł
- Department of Radiography, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Street, 20-081 Lublin, Poland
| | - Artur Łazorczyk
- Department of Radiography, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Street, 20-081 Lublin, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kochalska
- Department of Radiography, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Street, 20-081 Lublin, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Targowska-Duda
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Anna Boguszewska-Czubara
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Barbara Budzyńska
- Independent Laboratory of Behavioral Studies, Chair of Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Weng TI, Chen HY, Chin LW, Chou HH, Wu MH, Chen GY, Chen JY, Shih CP, Lin CC, Fang CC. Comparison of clinical characteristics between meth/amphetamine and synthetic cathinone users presented to the emergency department. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2022; 60:926-932. [PMID: 35438590 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2022.2062376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cathinones (SC) are popular new psychoactive substances that produce sympathomimetic toxicity. Meth/amphetamine and SC have similar chemical structures and pharmacological effects. We aimed to compare the clinical characteristics between meth/amphetamine and SC users presenting to the emergency department (ED). METHODS This retrospective observational cohort study included patients who presented to six EDs from May 2017 to April 2021 with symptoms that related to recreational drug use and whose urine toxicology tests were positive only for meth/amphetamine or SC through liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS There were 379 patients who tested positive only for meth/amphetamine (MA group), and 87 patients tested positive only for SC (SC groups). Patients in the MA group were older than those in the SC group (median (IQR); MA: 37.0 (30-43.7), SC: 25.0 (21.0-32.7), p < 0.001). There were no significant between-group differences in the sex distribution and initial chief complaints. Compared with the MA group, the SC group had more cases of tachycardia (≥ 135/min; MA: 29 (8.2%), SC:16 (19.0%), p = 0.0031) and hyperthermia (≥ 38 °C; MA: 31 (8.2%), SC:18 (20.7%), p = 0.001). Besides, the SC group had significantly higher levels of creatinine kinase (CK, IU/L; MA: 263 (115-601), SC: 497 (206-9216), p = 0.008) as well as a higher risk of rhabdomyolysis (CK > 1000; MA:32 (8.4%), SC: 16 (18.4%), p = 0.006) and severe rhabdomyolysis (CK > 10,000; MA:10 (2.6%), SC:10 (11.5%), p = 001). Multivariable logistic regression analyses indicated SC group in comparison with the MA group (adjusted odds ratio: 2.732, 95% confidence interval: 1. 250-5.972, p = 0.012) was an association with the risk of rhabdomyolysis. CONCLUSION Our findings demonstrate that tachycardia, hyperthermia, and rhabdomyolysis were more common among cathinone users than among meth/amphetamine users presented to EDs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Te-I Weng
- Department of Emergency Medicine, National Taiwan University College of Medicine and National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Forensic and Clinical Toxicology Center, College of Medicine and National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Forensic Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsien-Yi Chen
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Lengsu W Chin
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Da Chien General Hospital, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Hui Chou
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan
| | - Meng-Huan Wu
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Guan-Yuan Chen
- Forensic and Clinical Toxicology Center, College of Medicine and National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Forensic Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ju-Yu Chen
- Forensic and Clinical Toxicology Center, College of Medicine and National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Forensic Medicine, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Pang Shih
- Department of Nursing, Yuanpei University of Medical Technology, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Chuan Lin
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Chung Fang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, National Taiwan University College of Medicine and National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Forensic and Clinical Toxicology Center, College of Medicine and National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Serefko A, Bielecka-Papierz G, Talarek S, Szopa A, Skałecki P, Szewczyk B, Radziwoń-Zaleska M, Poleszak E. Central Effects of the Designer Drug Mephedrone in Mice-Basic Studies. Brain Sci 2022; 12:189. [PMID: 35203952 PMCID: PMC8870446 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12020189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone belongs to the "party drugs" thanks to its psychostimulant effects, similar to the ones observed after amphetamines. Though mephedrone is used worldwide by humans and in laboratory animals, not all properties of this drug have been discovered yet. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to expand the knowledge about mephedrone's activity in living organisms. A set of behavioral tests (i.e., measurement of the spontaneous locomotor activity, rotarod, chimney, elevated plus maze with its modification, novel object recognition, and pentylenetetrazol seizure tests) were carried out in male albino Swiss mice. Different dose ranges of mephedrone (0.05-5 mg/kg) were administered. We demonstrated that mephedrone at a dose of 5 mg/kg rapidly increased the spontaneous locomotor activity of the tested mice and its repeated administration led to the development of tolerance to these effects. Mephedrone showed the anxiolytic-like potential and improved spatial memory, but it did not affect recognition memory. Moreover, the drug seemed not to have any anticonvulsant or proconvulsant activity. In conclusion, mephedrone induces many central effects. It easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and peaks in the brain quickly after exposure. Our experiment on inducing a hyperlocomotion effect showed that mephedrone's effects are transient and lasted for a relatively short time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Serefko
- Laboratory of Preclinical Testing, Chair and Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Gabriela Bielecka-Papierz
- Chair and Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Sylwia Talarek
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Aleksandra Szopa
- Laboratory of Preclinical Testing, Chair and Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Piotr Skałecki
- Department of Commodity Science and Processing of Raw Animal Materials, University of Life Sciences, 13 Akademicka Street, 20-950 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Bernadeta Szewczyk
- Department of Neurobiology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna Street, 31-343 Kraków, Poland;
| | | | - Ewa Poleszak
- Laboratory of Preclinical Testing, Chair and Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Czerwinska J, Parkin MC, George C, Kicman AT, Dargan PI, Abbate V. Pharmacokinetics of Mephedrone and Its Metabolites in Whole Blood and Plasma after Controlled Intranasal Administration to Healthy Human Volunteers. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:730-738. [PMID: 32986113 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone is a popular synthetic cathinone, known for its psychostimulant effects. At present, there is no data available on the pharmacokinetics of mephedrone and its metabolites in concurrently collected whole blood and plasma samples after a controlled intranasal administration to healthy volunteers. In this study, six healthy male volunteers nasally insufflated 100 mg of pure mephedrone hydrochloride (Day 1). Whole blood and plasma samples were collected at different time points after the administration and were analyzed for the presence of mephedrone and its metabolites, dihydro-mephedrone (DHM), nor-mephedrone (NOR), hydroxytolyl-mephedrone (HYDROXY), 4-carboxy-mephedrone (4-CARBOXY) and dihydro-nor-mephedrone (DHNM), by validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methods. All analytes were detected in whole blood and plasma for 6 h post administration, with mephedrone and NOR also being detectable on Day 2 in some participants. 4-CARBOXY, followed by NOR, was the most abundant metabolite in both matrices. Compared to other psychostimulants, mephedrone showed rapid absorption (mean Tmax of 52.5 ± 20.7 min in plasma and 55.0 ± 18.2 min in whole blood) and elimination (mean t1/2 of 1.98 ± 0.30 h in plasma and 2.12 ± 0.33 h in whole blood). In addition, statistical analysis showed that median whole blood to plasma distribution ratios, reported here for the first time, were statistically different from 1 (unity) for mephedrone (median: 1.11), DHM (median: 1.30) and NOR (median: 0.765). It is hoped that the study will aid forensic and clinical toxicologists in detection, identification and interpretation of cases associated with mephedrone use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Czerwinska
- King's Forensics, Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Mark C Parkin
- King's Forensics, Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.,Eurofins Forensic Services, Toxicology Department, Teddington, UK
| | | | - Andrew T Kicman
- King's Forensics, Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Paul I Dargan
- Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK.,Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Vincenzo Abbate
- King's Forensics, Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Soares J, Costa VM, Bastos MDL, Carvalho F, Capela JP. An updated review on synthetic cathinones. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:2895-2940. [PMID: 34100120 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03083-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cathinone, the main psychoactive compound found in the plant Catha edulis Forsk. (khat), is a β-keto analogue of amphetamine, sharing not only the phenethylamine structure, but also the amphetamine-like stimulant effects. Synthetic cathinones are derivatives of the naturally occurring cathinone that largely entered the recreational drug market at the end of 2000s. The former "legal status", impressive marketing strategies and their commercial availability, either in the so-called "smartshops" or via the Internet, prompted their large spread, contributing to their increasing popularity in the following years. As their popularity increased, the risks posed for public health became clear, with several reports of intoxications and deaths involving these substances appearing both in the social media and scientific literature. The regulatory measures introduced thereafter to halt these trending drugs of abuse have proved to be of low impact, as a continuous emergence of new non-controlled derivatives keep appearing to replace those prohibited. Users resort to synthetic cathinones due to their psychostimulant properties but are often unaware of the dangers they may incur when using these substances. Therefore, studies aimed at unveiling the pharmacological and toxicological properties of these substances are imperative, as they will provide increased expertise to the clinicians that face this problem on a daily basis. The present work provides a comprehensive review on history and legal status, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, adverse effects and lethality in humans, as well as on the current knowledge of the neurotoxic mechanisms of synthetic cathinones.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Soares
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Vera Marisa Costa
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Capela
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
- FP-ENAS (Fernando Pessoa Energy, Environment and Health Research Unit), CEBIMED (Biomedical Research Centre), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Jîtcă G, Ősz BE, Tero-Vescan A, Vari CE. Psychoactive Drugs-From Chemical Structure to Oxidative Stress Related to Dopaminergic Neurotransmission. A Review. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:381. [PMID: 33806320 PMCID: PMC8000782 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10030381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, more and more young people want to experience illegal, psychoactive substances, without knowing the risks of exposure. Besides affecting social life, psychoactive substances also have an important effect on consumer health. We summarized and analyzed the published literature data with reference to the mechanism of free radical generation and the link between chemical structure and oxidative stress related to dopaminergic neurotransmission. This review presents data on the physicochemical properties, on the ability to cross the blood brain barrier, the chemical structure activity relationship (SAR), and possible mechanisms by which neuronal injuries occur due to oxidative stress as a result of drug abuse such as "bath salts", amphetamines, or cocaine. The mechanisms of action of ingested compounds or their metabolites involve intermediate steps in which free radicals are generated. The brain is strongly affected by the consumption of such substances, facilitating the induction of neurodegenerative diseases. It can be concluded that neurotoxicity is associated with drug abuse. Dependence and oxidative stress are linked to inhibition of neurogenesis and the onset of neuronal death. Understanding the pathological mechanisms following oxidative attack can be a starting point in the development of new therapeutic targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- George Jîtcă
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Târgu Mureș, 540142 Târgu Mureș, Romania; (G.J.); (C.E.V.)
| | - Bianca E. Ősz
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Târgu Mureș, 540142 Târgu Mureș, Romania; (G.J.); (C.E.V.)
| | - Amelia Tero-Vescan
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Târgu Mureș, 540142 Târgu Mureș, Romania;
| | - Camil E. Vari
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Târgu Mureș, 540142 Târgu Mureș, Romania; (G.J.); (C.E.V.)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Acute Pharmacological Effects of Oral and Intranasal Mephedrone: An Observational Study in Humans. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14020100. [PMID: 33525579 PMCID: PMC7912650 DOI: 10.3390/ph14020100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) is a synthetic cathinone with psychostimulant properties which remains one of the most popular new psychoactive substances (NPS). It is frequently used orally and/or intranasally. To date, no studies have evaluated the acute effects and pharmacokinetics after self-administration of mephedrone orally (ingestion) and intranasally (insufflation) in naturalistic conditions. An observational study was conducted to assess and compare the acute pharmacological effects, as well as the oral fluid (saliva) concentrations of mephedrone self-administered orally and intranasally. Ten healthy experienced drug users (4 females and 6 males) self-administered a single dose of mephedrone, orally (n = 5, 100–200 mg; mean 150 mg) or intranasally (n = 5, 50–100 mg, mean 70 mg). Vital signs (blood pressure, heart rate, and cutaneous temperature) were measured at baseline (0), 1, 2, and 4 h after self-administration. Each participant completed subjective effects questionnaires: A set of Visual Analogue Scales (VAS), the 49-item Addiction Research Centre Inventory (ARCI), and Evaluation of the Subjective Effects of Substances with Abuse Potential (VESSPA-SSE) at baseline, 1, 2, and 4 h after self-administration. Oral fluid and urine were collected during 4 h. Both routes of mephedrone self-administration enhanced ratings of euphoria and well-being effects and increased cardiovascular effects in humans. Although it was at times assessed that the oral route produced greater and larger effects than the intranasal one, concentrations of mephedrone in oral fluid and also the total amount of mephedrone and metabolites in urine showed that concentrations of mephedrone are considerably higher when self-administered intranasally in comparison to orally. Controlled clinical trials are needed to confirm our observational results.
Collapse
|
10
|
Vulnerability factors for mephedrone-induced conditioned place preference in rats-the impact of sex differences, social-conditioning and stress. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:2947-2961. [PMID: 34268586 PMCID: PMC8455394 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-05910-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Mephedrone is a frequently overused drug of abuse that belongs to the group of novel psychoactive substances. Although its mechanism of action, as well as toxic and psychoactive effects, has been widely studied, the role of different factors that could contribute to the increased vulnerability to mephedrone abuse is still poorly understood. OBJECTIVES The aim of the presented study was to assess the impact of several factors (sex differences, social-conditioning, and chronic mild unpredictable stress - CMUS) on the liability to mephedrone-induced reward in Wistar rats. METHODS The rewarding effects of mephedrone in male and female rats were assessed using the conditioned place preference (CPP) procedure. Furthermore, the impact of social factor and stress was evaluated in male rats using social-CPP and CMUS-dependent CPP, respectively. RESULTS Mephedrone induced classic-CPP in female (10 mg/kg), as well as in male (10 and 20 mg/kg) rats. However, the impact of mephedrone treatment during social-CPP was highly dose-dependent as the rewarding effects of low dose of mephedrone (5 mg/kg; non-active in classic-CPP) were potentiated when administered during social-conditioning. Interestingly, social-conditioning with a higher dose of 20 mg/kg (that induced classic-CPP) was able to reverse these effects. Finally, CMUS potentiated rewarding effects of a low dose of mephedrone (5 mg/kg) and increased the level of corticosterone in rats' prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. CONCLUSIONS Altogether, the presented results give new insight into possible factors underlying the vulnerability to mephedrone abuse and can serve as a basis for further studies assessing mechanisms underlying observed effects.
Collapse
|
11
|
Trujillo Uruena M, York R, Philp M, Kuzhiumparambil U, Wei Z, Yun K, Fu S. Identification of Unique 4-Methylmethcathinone (4-MMC) Degradation Markers in Putrefied Matrices†. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:803-810. [PMID: 33313885 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug degradation as a consequence of putrefactive bacterial activity is a well-known factor that affects the identification and quantitation of certain substances of forensic interest. Current knowledge on putrefaction-mediated degradation of drugs is, however, significantly lacking. This study aimed to investigate the degradation of 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC or mephedrone) and to detect its degradation products in putrefied biological matrices containing 4-MMC. The bacteria species Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus vulgaris were grown in brain-heart infusion broth, spiked with 4-MMC and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. Postmortem human blood and fresh porcine liver macerate were also left to putrefy in sample tubes at room temperature for 1 week. Structural elucidation was based on modern spectroscopic analyses including the use of high-resolution mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. All four putrefactive bacteria were capable of degrading 4-MMC extensively under the experimental conditions explored. Of particular interest was the discovery of a novel degradation product common to all four bacterial species, which was assigned as 2-hydroxy-1-(4-methylphenyl)propan-1-one (HMP) based on the spectroscopic data. This degradation product was detectable in both postmortem human blood and porcine liver samples. The stability of the identified degradation products, especially HMP, should be further investigated to assess their validity of serving as marker analytes for monitoring 4-MMC in postmortem toxicology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Trujillo Uruena
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Rebekah York
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | - Morgan Philp
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo, New South Wales 2007, Australia
| | | | - Zhiwen Wei
- School of Forensic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, 98 University Street, Yuci District, Jinzhong City 030606, Shanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Keming Yun
- School of Forensic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, 98 University Street, Yuci District, Jinzhong City 030606, Shanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanlin Fu
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo, New South Wales 2007, Australia.,School of Forensic Medicine, Shanxi Medical University, 98 University Street, Yuci District, Jinzhong City 030606, Shanxi, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kamiya Y, Otsuka S, Miura T, Yoshizawa M, Nakano A, Iwasaki M, Kobayashi Y, Shimizu M, Kitajima M, Shono F, Funatsu K, Yamazaki H. Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models Predicting Renal and Hepatic Concentrations of Industrial Chemicals after Virtual Oral Doses in Rats. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:1736-1751. [PMID: 32500706 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Recently developed high-throughput in vitro assays in combination with computational models could provide alternatives to animal testing. The purpose of the present study was to model the plasma, hepatic, and renal pharmacokinetics of approximately 150 structurally varied types of drugs, food components, and industrial chemicals after virtual external oral dosing in rats and to determine the relationship between the simulated internal concentrations in tissue/plasma and their lowest-observed-effect levels. The model parameters were based on rat plasma data from the literature and empirically determined pharmacokinetics measured after oral administrations to rats carried out to evaluate hepatotoxic or nephrotic potentials. To ensure that the analyzed substances exhibited a broad diversity of chemical structures, their structure-based location in the chemical space underwent projection onto a two-dimensional plane, as reported previously, using generative topographic mapping. A high-throughput in silico one-compartment model and a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model consisting of chemical receptor (gut), metabolizing (liver), central (main), and excreting (kidney) compartments were developed in parallel. For 159 disparate chemicals, the maximum plasma concentrations and the areas under the concentration-time curves obtained by one-compartment models and modified simple PBPK models were closely correlated. However, there were differences between the PBPK modeled and empirically obtained hepatic/renal concentrations and plasma maximal concentrations/areas under the concentration-time curves of the 159 chemicals. For a few compounds, the lowest-observed-effect levels were available for hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in the Hazard Evaluation Support System Integrated Platform in Japan. The areas under the renal or hepatic concentration-time curves estimated using PBPK modeling were inversely associated with these lowest-observed-effect levels. Using PBPK forward dosimetry could provide the plasma/tissue concentrations of drugs and chemicals after oral dosing, thereby facilitating estimates of nephrotoxic or hepatotoxic potential as a part of the risk assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Kamiya
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Shohei Otsuka
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Tomonori Miura
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Manae Yoshizawa
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Ayane Nakano
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Miyu Iwasaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Yui Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Makiko Shimizu
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Masato Kitajima
- Fujitsu Kyusyu Systems, Higashi-hie, Hakata-ku, Fukuoka 812-0007, Japan
| | - Fumiaki Shono
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Kimito Funatsu
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawa Gakuen, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Biodistribution and metabolic profile of 3,4-dimethylmethcathinone (3,4-DMMC) in Wistar rats through gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis. Toxicol Lett 2020; 320:113-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
14
|
LC‐MS/MS method for the quantification of new psychoactive substances and evaluation of their urinary detection in humans for doping control analysis. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:785-797. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
|
15
|
Schifano F, Napoletano F, Arillotta D, Zangani C, Gilgar L, Guirguis A, Corkery JM, Vento A. The clinical challenges of synthetic cathinones. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 86:410-419. [PMID: 31674690 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Within the new psychoactive substances (NPS) scenario, several hundred different molecules, mostly including synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones, have been identified so far. The aims of the paper were to: (i) identify the number of synthetic cathinones mentioned in a range of psychonaut, NPS-related, online sources; and (ii) describe the associated acute/long term clinical scenario and the related treatment/management plan. METHODS After about 18 months of operation and exclusion of false positives/duplicates, some 4204 unique NPS molecules were included in the NPSfinder® crawling/navigating software database. Most popular NPS included: 1265 psychedelic phenethylamines (30.1%; confidence interval [CI] 95%: 28.7-31.5%); 1253 synthetic cannabinoids (29.8%; CI 95%: 28.4-31.2%); 429 synthetic opioids (10.2%; CI 95%: 9.3-10.2%); and 171 synthetic cathinones (4.1%; CI 95% 3.5-4.7%). Conversely, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction databases respectively included 169 and 140 cathinones. Overall, the 3 databases reported some 222 synthetic cathinones, and 41 were uniquely identified by the NPSfinder®. RESULTS In terms of clinical scenarios, synthetic cathinone ingestion is initially associated with stimulant effects; however, psychopathological disturbances, violence, suicidal behaviour, hyperthermia, coma and death have also been described. CONCLUSION The proportion of cathinones commented on by psychonaut fora appeared to be relatively small, and similar to those reported by both the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. This may be associated with a recent significant decline in both cathinone-related consumption and acute medical presentation. Due to their complex behavioural and medical toxicity issues, healthcare professionals should be, however, be educated to recognise the signs and symptoms of NPS, including synthetic cathinone, ingestion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Flavia Napoletano
- East London Foundation Trust (ELFT), Homerton University Hospital, London, UK
| | - Davide Arillotta
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Caroline Zangani
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Liam Gilgar
- Gabalfa Clinic, Cardiff and Vale NHS Health Board, Cardiff, UK
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Swansea University Medical School; Institute of Life Sciences; Swansea, UK
| | - John Martin Corkery
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Alessandro Vento
- Addictions' Observatory (ODDPSS), Rome, Italy.,Guglielmo Marconi University, Rome, Italy.,Department of Mental Health, ASL Roma 2, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Zwartsen A, Olijhoek ME, Westerink RHS, Hondebrink L. Hazard Characterization of Synthetic Cathinones Using Viability, Monoamine Reuptake, and Neuronal Activity Assays. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:9. [PMID: 32063828 PMCID: PMC7000521 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are the second largest class of new psychoactive substances (NPS) on the drug market. Despite the large number of different cathinones and their abundant use, hazard characterization is mainly limited to their potential to inhibit monoamine transporters. To expand the current hazard characterization, we first investigated the acute effects of several synthetic cathinones [4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC), 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC), 4-MMC, methylone, pentedrone, α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP), and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV)] on human dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin reuptake transporters (hDAT, hNET, and hSERT), which were stably transfected in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells. Next, we examined effects on spontaneous neuronal activity in rat primary cortical cultures grown on microelectrode arrays (MEAs) as an integrated endpoint for neurotoxicity. Changes in neuronal activity were assessed after acute (30 min) and prolonged (4.5 h) exposure. Moreover, we investigated whether neuronal activity recovered after washout of the exposure (24 h after the start of the 5 h exposure). Low micromolar concentrations of synthetic cathinones inhibited monoamine uptake via hDAT and hNET, while higher cathinone concentrations were needed to inhibit uptake via hSERT. Comparable high concentrations were needed to inhibit spontaneous neuronal activity during acute (30 min) and prolonged (4.5 h) exposure. Notably, while the inhibition of neuronal activity was reversible at low concentrations, only partial recovery was seen following high, but non-cytotoxic, concentrations of synthetic cathinones. Synthetic cathinones with either a pyrrolidine moiety or long alkyl-tail carbon chain more potently inhibit monoamine uptake via hDAT and neuronal activity. Monoamine uptake via hNET was most potently inhibited by synthetic cathinones with a pyrrolidine moiety. The combination of integrated measurements (MEA recordings of neuronal activity) with single target assays (monoamine reuptake transporter inhibition) indicates inhibition of hDAT and hNET as the primary mode of action of these synthetic cathinones. Changes in neuronal activity, indicative for additional mechanisms, were observed at higher concentrations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anne Zwartsen
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.,Dutch Poisons Information Center (DPIC), University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Michiel E Olijhoek
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Remco H S Westerink
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Toxicology Division, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Laura Hondebrink
- Dutch Poisons Information Center (DPIC), University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Subacute administration of both methcathinone and manganese causes basal ganglia damage in mice resembling that in methcathinone abusers. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2019; 127:707-714. [PMID: 31786692 PMCID: PMC7242255 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-019-02110-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
An irreversible extrapyramidal syndrome occurs in man after intravenous abuse of “homemade” methcathinone (ephedrone, Mcat) that is contaminated with manganese (Mn) and is accompanied by altered basal ganglia function. Both Mcat and Mn can cause alterations in nigrostriatal function but it remains unknown whether the effects of the ‘homemade’ drug seen in man are due to Mcat or to Mn or to a combination of both. To determine how toxicity occurs, we have investigated the effects of 4-week intraperitoneal administration of Mn (30 mg/kg t.i.d) and Mcat (100 mg/kg t.i.d.) given alone, on the nigrostriatal function in male C57BL6 mice. The effects were compared to those of the ‘homemade’ mixture which contained about 7 mg/kg of Mn and 100 mg/kg of Mcat. Motor function, nigral dopaminergic cell number and markers of pre- and postsynaptic dopaminergic neuronal integrity including SPECT analysis were assessed. All three treatments had similar effects on motor behavior and neuronal markers. All decreased motor activity and induced tyrosine hydroxylase positive cell loss in the substantia nigra. All reduced 123I-epidepride binding to D2 receptors in the striatum. Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) binding was not altered by any drug treatment. However, Mcat treatment alone decreased levels of the dopamine transporter (DAT) and Mn alone reduced GAD immunoreactivity in the striatum. These data suggest that both Mcat and Mn alone could contribute to the neuronal damage caused by the ‘homemade’ mixture but that both produce additional changes that contribute to the extrapyramidal syndrome seen in man.
Collapse
|
18
|
The new psychoactive substance 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC or metaphedrone) induces oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy in primary rat hepatocytes at human-relevant concentrations. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:2617-2634. [PMID: 31468101 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02539-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
3-Methylmethcathinone (3-MMC or metaphedrone) has become one of the most popular recreational drugs worldwide after the ban of mephedrone, and was recently deemed responsible for several intoxications and deaths. This study aimed at assessing the hepatotoxicity of 3-MMC. For this purpose, Wistar rat hepatocytes were isolated by collagenase perfusion, cultured and exposed for 24 h at a concentration range varying from 31 nM to 10 mM 3-MMC. The modulatory effects of cytochrome P450 (CYP) inhibitors on 3-MMC hepatotoxicity were evaluated. 3-MMC-induced toxicity was perceived at the lysosome at lower concentrations (NOEC 312.5 µM), compared to mitochondria (NOEC 379.5 µM) and cytoplasmic membrane (NOEC 1.04 mM). Inhibition of CYP2D6 and CYP2E1 diminished 3-MMC cytotoxicity, yet for CYP2E1 inhibition this effect was only observed for concentrations up to 1.3 mM. A significant concentration-dependent increase of intracellular reactive species was observed from 10 μM 3-MMC on; a concentration-dependent decrease in antioxidant glutathione defences was also observed. At 10 μM, caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 activities were significantly elevated, corroborating the activation of both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways. Nuclear morphology and formation of cytoplasmic acidic vacuoles suggest prevalence of necrosis and autophagy at concentrations higher than 10 μM. No significant alterations were observed in the mitochondrial membrane potential, but intracellular ATP significantly decreased at 100 μM. Our data point to a role of metabolism in the hepatotoxicity of 3-MMC, which seems to be triggered both by autophagic and apoptotic/necrotic mechanisms. This work is the first approach to better understand 3-MMC toxicology.
Collapse
|
19
|
Olesti E, Farré M, Carbó ML, Papaseit E, Perez-Mañá C, Torrens M, Yubero-Lahoz S, Pujadas M, Pozo ÓJ, de la Torre R. Dose-Response Pharmacological Study of Mephedrone and Its Metabolites: Pharmacokinetics, Serotoninergic Effects, and Impact of CYP2D6 Genetic Variation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2019; 106:596-604. [PMID: 30815856 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.1417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Mephedrone (MEPH), the most widely consumed synthetic cathinone, has been associated with acute toxicity episodes. The aim of this report was to study its metabolic disposition and the impact of genetic variation of CYP2D6 on MEPH metabolism, in a dose range compatible with its recreational use. A randomized, crossover, phase I clinical trial was performed. Subjects received 50 and 100 mg (n = 3) and 150 and 200 mg (n = 6) of mephedrone and were genetically and phenotypically characterized for the CYP2D6 allelic variation. Our results showed a linear kinetics of mephedrone at the dose range assayed: plasma concentrations, cardiovascular and subjective effects, and blood serotonin concentrations all correlated in a dose-dependent manner. Mephedrone metabolic disposition is mediated by CYP2D6. Mephedrone pharmacology presented a linear dose-dependence within the range of doses tested. The metabolism of mephedrone by CYP2D6 implies that recreational users with no or low CYP2D6 functionality are exposed to unwanted acute toxicity episodes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eulàlia Olesti
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
| | - Marcel Lí Carbó
- Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Esther Papaseit
- School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
| | - Clara Perez-Mañá
- School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,Addiction Research Group, IMIM-Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Samanta Yubero-Lahoz
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mitona Pujadas
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CB06/03), CIBEROBN, Madrid, Spain
| | - Óscar J Pozo
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CB06/03), CIBEROBN, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Calinski DM, Kisor DF, Sprague JE. A review of the influence of functional group modifications to the core scaffold of synthetic cathinones on drug pharmacokinetics. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:881-890. [PMID: 30069588 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4985-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The synthetic cathinones are a class of designer drugs of abuse that share a common core scaffold. The pharmacokinetic profiles of the synthetic cathinones vary based on the substitutions to the core scaffold. OBJECTIVES To provide a summary of the literature regarding the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the synthetic cathinones, with a focus on the impact of the structural modifications to the pharmacokinetics. RESULTS In many, but not all, instances the pharmacokinetic characteristics of the synthetic cathinones can be reasonably predicted based on the substitutions to the core scaffold. Mephedrone and methylone are chemically alike and have similar Tmax and t1/2 in male rats. MDPV, a structurally distinct synthetic cathinone from mephedrone and methylone, has a lower Tmax and t1/2. Increasing the length of the alkyl chain on the α position of methylone, to produce pentylone, results in increased plasma concentrations and longer t1/2. Metabolism of the synthetic cathinones is reasonably predictable based on the chemical structure, and several phase I metabolites retain pharmacodynamic activity. CYP2D6 is implicated in the metabolism of all of the synthetic cathinones, and other P450s (CYP1A2, CYP2B6, and CYP2C19) are known to contribute variably to the metabolism of specific synthetic cathinones. CONCLUSIONS Continued research will lead to a better understanding of the pharmacokinetic changes associated with structural modifications to the cathinone scaffold, and potentially in the long range, enhanced overdose and addiction therapy. Additionally, the areas of polydrug use and pharmacogenetics have been largely overlooked with regard to synthetic cathinones.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diane M Calinski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Natural and Health Sciences, Manchester University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46845, USA
| | - David F Kisor
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Natural and Health Sciences, Manchester University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46845, USA
| | - Jon E Sprague
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Natural and Health Sciences, Manchester University, Fort Wayne, IN, 46845, USA. .,The Ohio Attorney General's Center for the Future of Forensic Science, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, 43403, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Olesti E, De Toma I, Ramaekers JG, Brunt TM, Carbó ML, Fernández-Avilés C, Robledo P, Farré M, Dierssen M, Pozo ÓJ, de la Torre R. Metabolomics predicts the pharmacological profile of new psychoactive substances. J Psychopharmacol 2019; 33:347-354. [PMID: 30451567 DOI: 10.1177/0269881118812103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The unprecedented proliferation of new psychoactive substances (NPS) threatens public health and challenges drug policy. Information on NPS pharmacology and toxicity is, in most cases, unavailable or very limited and, given the large number of new compounds released on the market each year, their timely evaluation by current standards is certainly challenging. AIMS We present here a metabolomics-targeted approach to predict the pharmacological profile of NPS. METHODS We have created a machine learning algorithm employing the quantification of monoamine neurotransmitters and steroid hormones in rats to predict the similarity of new drugs to classical ones of abuse (MDMA (3,4-methyl enedioxy methamphetamine), methamphetamine, cocaine, heroin and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol). RESULTS We have characterized each classical drug of abuse and two examples of NPS (mephedrone and JWH-018) following alterations observed in the targeted metabolome profile (monoamine neurotransmitters and steroid hormones) in different brain areas, plasma and urine at 1 h and 4 h post drug/vehicle administration. As proof of concept, our model successfully predicted the pharmacological profile of a synthetic cannabinoid (JWH-018) as a cannabinoid-like drug and synthetic cathinone (mephedrone) as a MDMA-like psychostimulant. CONCLUSION Our approach allows a fast NPS pharmacological classification which will benefit both drug risk evaluation policies and public health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eulàlia Olesti
- 1 Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,2 Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ilario De Toma
- 2 Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain.,3 Cellular & Systems Neurobiology, Systems Biology Program, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- 4 Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- 5 Amsterdam Institute for Addiction Research, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,6 Department of Drug Monitoring & Policy, Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel Lí Carbó
- 2 Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain.,7 Biomedical Research, Prous Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,8 Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry. Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona. Av. Joan XXIII 27-31, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Fernández-Avilés
- 1 Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Patricia Robledo
- 1 Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,2 Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- 8 Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry. Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona. Av. Joan XXIII 27-31, Barcelona, Spain.,10 School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Mara Dierssen
- 1 Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,2 Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain.,3 Cellular & Systems Neurobiology, Systems Biology Program, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain.,10 School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,11 CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CB06/03), CIBEROBN, Madrid, Spain
| | - Óscar J Pozo
- 1 Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- 1 Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,2 Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain.,10 School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,11 CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CB06/03), CIBEROBN, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Benturquia N, Chevillard L, Poiré C, Roussel O, Cohier C, Declèves X, Laplanche JL, Etheve-Quelquejeu M, Chen H, Mégarbane B. Is the 3,4-methylendioxypyrovalerone/mephedrone combination responsible for enhanced stimulant effects? A rat study with investigation of the effect/concentration relationships. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:891-901. [PMID: 29971461 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4962-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The use of synthetic cathinones as recreational drugs frequently sold in combination has been increasing exponentially. However, the consequences of combining cathinones on the resulting stimulant effects and the pharmacokinetics have been poorly investigated. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS To study 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV; 3 mg/kg) and mephedrone (4-MMC; 30 mg/kg)-induced effects on rat locomotor activity and pharmacokinetics, administered alone or in combination by the intragastric route. The pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using non-compartmental analysis and the relationships between the locomotor activity and drug concentrations using sigmoidal Emax modeling. RESULTS Locomotor activity significantly increased during the first hour post-administration with the MDPV/4-MMC combination in comparison to MDPV (p < 0.001) and 4-MMC (p < 0.01) alone. The pharmacokinetic profile of MDPV, but not 4-MMC, was significantly modified with the combination resulting in decreases in Cmax (16.4 ± 5.5 versus 62.2 ± 14.2 μg/L, p < 0.05) and AUC0 → ∞ (708 ± 91 versus 3316 ± 682 μg/L/min, p < 0.01) and increases in V/F (582.6 ± 136.8 versus 115.9 ± 42.7 L/kg, p < 0.05) and Cl/F (4.6 ± 0.7 versus 1.2 ± 0.4 L/kg/min, p < 0.01) in comparison to MDPV alone. The sigmoidal Emax model fitted the observed data well; MDPV being markedly more potent than 4-MMC (EC50, 0.043 versus 0.7 μmol/L). The enhancing factor representing the MDPV contribution to the alteration in the relationships between locomotor activity and 4-MMC concentrations was 0.3. CONCLUSION An MDPV/4-MMC combination results in enhanced stimulant effects in the rat, despite significant reduction in MDPV bioavailability. Enhanced effects could be explained by increased MDPV distribution and/or possible complementation at the brain dopaminergic targets. However, the exact consequences of the MDPV/4-MMC combination in humans remain to be clarified.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Benturquia
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Lucie Chevillard
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Christophe Poiré
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Roussel
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France.,Toxicology Department, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, Rosny sous-Bois, France
| | - Camille Cohier
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France.,Toxicology Department, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, Rosny sous-Bois, France
| | - Xavier Declèves
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Louis Laplanche
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Mélanie Etheve-Quelquejeu
- CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Huixiong Chen
- CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Mégarbane
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France. .,Department of Medical and Toxicological Critical Care, Lariboisière Hospital, Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Naserzadeh P, Taghizadeh G, Atabaki B, Seydi E, Pourahmad J. A comparison of mitochondrial toxicity of mephedrone on three separate parts of brain including hippocampus, cortex and cerebellum. Neurotoxicology 2019; 73:40-49. [PMID: 30802467 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2019.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2018] [Revised: 01/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) is a new and popular drug of abuse and also widely available on the internet and still legal in some parts of the world. The central nervous system is the target of mephedrone and recent evidence suggested that mephedrone could affect mitochondria in brain tissue. However, the underlying mechanisms of mephedrone toxicity in brain mitochondria have not yet been well understood. In this study, mitochondria from three separate parts of rat brain hippocampus, cortex, and cerebellum were obtained using differential centrifugation and were incubated with different concentrations of mephedrone (3, 6 and 12 μM). Then, the mitochondrial parameters toxicity were determined. The results showed that mephedrone (3, 6 and 12 μM) induced impairment in the activity of the mitochondrial complex II and IV. Also, mephedrone (3, 6 and 12 μM) increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, collapsed mitochondria membrane potential (MMP), induced swelling in the mitochondria and damaged the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM) in the mitochondria obtained from hippocampus, cortex, and cerebellum, which in all cases is associated with the cytochrome c release. Furthermore, increased disturbance in oxidative phosphorylation was also shown by the decrease in ATP level in mephedrone-treated mitochondria indicating mitochondrial dysfunction in separate parts of the brain. This study suggests that mephedrone via increasing oxidative stress and impairment of the mitochondrial respiratory chain in the hippocampus, cortex, and cerebellum may play a key role in the neurotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Parvaneh Naserzadeh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Students Research Committee, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical SciencesTehran, Iran
| | - Ghorban Taghizadeh
- Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Rehabilitation Research Center, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behnaz Atabaki
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Enayatollah Seydi
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran; Research Center for Health, Safety and Environment, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran.
| | - Jalal Pourahmad
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Briggs SB, Hafenbreidel M, Young EJ, Rumbaugh G, Miller CA. The role of nonmuscle myosin II in polydrug memories and memory reconsolidation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 25:391-398. [PMID: 30115760 PMCID: PMC6097765 DOI: 10.1101/lm.046763.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Using pharmacologic and genetic approaches targeting actin or the actin-driving molecular motor, nonmuscle myosin II (NMII), we previously discovered an immediate, retrieval-independent, and long-lasting disruption of methamphetamine- (METH-) and amphetamine-associated memories. A single intrabasolateral amygdala complex infusion or systemic administration of the NMII inhibitor Blebbistatin (Blebb) is sufficient to produce this disruption, which is selective, having no retrieval-independent effect on memories for fear, food reward, cocaine, or morphine. However, it was unclear if Blebb treatment would disrupt memories of other stimulants and amphetamine class drugs, such as nicotine (NIC) or mephedrone (MEPH; bath salts). Moreover, many individuals abuse multiple drugs, but it was unknown if Blebb could disrupt polydrug memories, or if the inclusion of another substance would render Blebb no longer able to disrupt METH-associated memories. Therefore, the present study had two primary goals: (1) to determine the ability of Blebb to disrupt NIC- or MEPH-associated memories, and (2) to determine the ability of METH to modify other unconditioned stimulus (US) associations’ susceptibility to Blebb. To this end, using the conditional place preference model, mice were conditioned to NIC and MEPH alone or METH in combination with NIC, morphine, or foot shock. We report that, unlike METH, there was no retrieval-independent effect of Blebb on NIC- or MEPH-associated memories. However, similar to cocaine, reconsolidation of the memory for both drugs was disrupted. Further, when combined with METH administration, NIC- and morphine-, but not fear-, associated memories were rendered susceptible to disruption by Blebb. Given the high rate of polydrug use and the resurgence of METH use, these results have important implications for the treatment of substance use disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sherri B Briggs
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA
| | - Madalyn Hafenbreidel
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA
| | - Erica J Young
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA
| | - Gavin Rumbaugh
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA
| | - Courtney A Miller
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, USA
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Turner AC, Stramek A, Kraev I, Stewart MG, Overton PG, Dommett EJ. Repeated intermittent oral amphetamine administration results in locomotor tolerance not sensitization. J Psychopharmacol 2018; 32:949-954. [PMID: 29580130 DOI: 10.1177/0269881118763984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The phenomenon of locomotor sensitization to injected amphetamine is well-characterised. The increased locomotor activity found acutely is enhanced with repeated intermittent treatment. This effect arises due to hypersensitization of the dopaminergic system and is linked to drug addiction. A clinical population exposed to chronic repeated intermittent amphetamine treatment, such as is found for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), may be expected to be more at risk of addiction following this treatment. However, evidence suggests the opposite may be true. This suggests the route of administration may determine the direction of effects. AIMS AND METHODS We aimed to establish how an oral amphetamine treatment regimen, similar to that used in ADHD, impacts on locomotor activity, specifically whether tolerance or sensitization would arise. Healthy hooded Lister rats were given amphetamine (2 mg/kg, 5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg) or a vehicle solution once daily for 4 weeks with a 5 day on, 2 day off schedule. Locomotor activity was measured on the first day of treatment to establish the acute effects and on the final day of treatment to examine the chronic effects. RESULTS As expected, acute doses of amphetamine increased locomotor activity, although this only reached statistical significance for the 5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg doses. By contrast, after chronic treatment, animals administered these doses showed reduced activity indicating drug tolerance rather than sensitization had occurred. CONCLUSION We suggest that the route of administration used in ADHD, which results in more stable and longer duration drug levels in the blood, results in tolerance rather than sensitization and that this effect could explain the reduced likelihood of substance addiction in those treated with psychostimulants for ADHD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy C Turner
- 1 School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Agata Stramek
- 1 School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Igor Kraev
- 1 School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Michael G Stewart
- 1 School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | | | - Eleanor J Dommett
- 1 School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK.,3 Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
The Designer Drug 3-Fluoromethcathinone Induces Oxidative Stress and Activates Autophagy in HT22 Neuronal Cells. Neurotox Res 2018; 34:388-400. [PMID: 29656349 PMCID: PMC6154176 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-018-9898-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are psychoactive substances, derivatives of a natural psychostimulant cathinone. Although many synthetic cathinones have lost their legal status in many countries, their abuse still continues worldwide. Recently, they have been reported to exert neurotoxic effects in vitro and in vivo. The molecular mechanisms of their action have not been fully elucidated. Recently, they have been linked to the induction of oxidative stress, autophagy, and apoptosis. The aim of this study was to investigate whether 3-fluoromethcathinone (3-FMC), a synthetic cathinone, is able to induce oxidative stress, autophagy, and apoptosis in HT22 immortalized mouse hippocampal cells. We found that treatment of HT22 cells with this compound results in a concentration-dependent increase in the intracellular production of reactive oxygen species. Moreover, 3-FMC induced concentration-dependent conversion of cytosolic LC3-I to membrane-bound LC3-II and formation of autophagic vacuoles. Additionally, the level of p62/SQSTM1 protein decreased after 3-FMC treatment, suggesting that accumulation of autophagic vacuoles resulted from activation rather than inhibition of autophagy. Our results also showed that 3-FMC at millimolar concentration is able to induce caspase-dependent apoptotic cell death in HT22 cells. Our findings suggest that abuse of 3-FMC may disturb neuronal homeostasis and impair functioning of the central nervous system.
Collapse
|
27
|
Effect of the combination of mephedrone plus ethanol on serotonin and dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex of awake rats. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2018; 391:247-254. [PMID: 29349706 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-018-1464-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Cathinones, such as mephedrone (Meph), are often co-abused with alcoholic drinks. In the present study, we investigated the combined effects of Meph plus ethanol (EtOH) on neurotransmitter release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). A guide canula was stereotaxically implanted into either the NAc or the mPFC of male Sprague-Dawley rats. Seven days after surgery, a microdialysis probe was inserted and rats were administered saline, EtOH (1 g/kg, i.p.), Meph (25 mg/kg, s.c.), or their combination, and dialysates were collected. Serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), and their metabolites (5-HIAA, DOPAC and HVA) were determined through high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. 5-HT and DA peaked 40 min after Meph administration (with or without EtOH co-treatment) in both areas. EtOH combined with Meph increased the 5-HT release compared with the rats receiving Meph alone (85% in NAc, 65% in mPFC), although the overall change in the area under the curve only reached statistical significance in the NAc. In mPFC, the increased release of 5-HT lasted longer in the combination than that in the Meph group. Moreover, EtOH potentiated the psychostimulant effect of Meph measured as a locomotor activity. Given that both 5-HT and DA are also related with reward and impulsivity, the observed effects point to an increased risk of abuse liability when combining Meph with EtOH compared with consuming these drugs alone.
Collapse
|
28
|
Šíchová K, Pinterová N, Židková M, Horsley RR, Lhotková E, Štefková K, Vejmola Č, Uttl L, Balíková M, Kuchař M, Páleníček T. Mephedrone (4-Methylmethcathinone): Acute Behavioral Effects, Hyperthermic, and Pharmacokinetic Profile in Rats. Front Psychiatry 2018; 8:306. [PMID: 29375408 PMCID: PMC5767720 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone (MEPH) is a synthetic cathinone derivative with effects that mimic MDMA and/or cocaine. Our study in male Wistar rats provides detailed investigations of MEPH's and its primary metabolite nor-mephedrone's (nor-MEPH) pharmacokinetics and bio-distribution to four different substrates (serum, brain, lungs, and liver), as well as comparative analysis of their effects on locomotion [open field test (OFT)] and sensorimotor gating [prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle reaction (PPI ASR)]. Furthermore, in order to mimic the crowded condition where MEPH is typically taken (e.g., clubs), the acute effect of MEPH on thermoregulation in singly- and group-housed rats was evaluated. Pharmacokinetics of MEPH and nor-MEPH after MEPH (5 mg/kg, sc.) were analyzed over 8 h using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry. MEPH (2.5, 5, or 20 mg/kg, sc.) and nor-MEPH (5 mg/kg, sc.) were administered 5 or 40 min before the behavioral testing in the OFT and PPI ASR; locomotion and its spatial distribution, ASR, habituation and PPI itself were quantified. The effect of MEPH on rectal temperature was measured after 5 and 20 mg/kg, sc. Both MEPH and nor-MEPH were detected in all substrates, with the highest levels detected in lungs. Mean brain: serum ratios were 1:1.19 (MEPH) and 1:1.91 (nor-MEPH), maximum concentrations were observed at 30 min; at 2 and 4 h after administration, nor-MEPH concentrations were higher compared to the parent drug. While neither of the drugs disrupted PPI, both increased locomotion and affected its spatial distribution. The effects of MEPH were dose dependent, rapid, and short-lasting, and the intensity of locomotor stimulant effects was comparable between MEPH and nor-MEPH. Despite the disappearance of behavioral effects within 40 min after administration, MEPH induced rectal temperature elevations that persisted for 3 h even in singly housed rats. To conclude, we observed a robust, short-lasting, and most likely synergistic stimulatory effect of both drugs which corresponded to brain pharmacokinetics. The dissociation between the duration of behavioral and hyperthermic effects is indicative of the possible contribution of nor-MEPH or other biologically active metabolites. This temporal dissociation may be related to the risk of prolonged somatic toxicity when stimulatory effects are no longer present.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Klára Šíchová
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Nikola Pinterová
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Monika Židková
- Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Rachel R. Horsley
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Lhotková
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Kristýna Štefková
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Čestmír Vejmola
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Libor Uttl
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marie Balíková
- Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kuchař
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
- Forensic Laboratory of Biologically Active Compounds, Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Páleníček
- Department of Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Philogene-Khalid HL, Hicks C, Reitz AB, Liu-Chen LY, Rawls SM. Synthetic cathinones and stereochemistry: S enantiomer of mephedrone reduces anxiety- and depressant-like effects in cocaine- or MDPV-abstinent rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 178. [PMID: 28646714 PMCID: PMC5548612 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The neuropharmacological profile of the synthetic cathinone mephedrone (MEPH) is influenced by stereochemistry. Both MEPH enantiomers are monoamine transporter substrates, but R-MEPH is primarily responsible for rewarding effects of MEPH as it produces greater locomotor activation and intracranial self-stimulation than S-MEPH. S-MEPH is a 50-fold more potent 5-HT releaser than R-MEPH and does not place preference in rats. MEPH is also structurally similar to the cathinone derivative bupropion, an antidepressant and smoking cessation medication, suggesting MEPH has therapeutic and addictive properties. METHODS We tested the hypothesis that S-MEPH reduces anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in rats withdrawn from chronic cocaine or methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) using the elevated plus maze (EPM) and forced swim test (FST), respectively. Rats were tested 48-h after a binge-like paradigm (3×/day for 10days in 1-h intervals) of cocaine (10mg/kg), MDPV (1mg/kg) or saline. In vitro studies assessed the receptor binding and activity of S-MEPH. KEY RESULTS Rats withdrawn from chronic cocaine or MDPV displayed an increase in anxiety- and depression-like behaviors that was antagonized by treatment with S-MEPH (10, 30mg/kg). S-MEPH displayed affinity, but not agonist activity, for 5-HT2 receptors (2A-2C) and showed negligible affinity for dopaminergic, adrenergic and nicotinic receptors. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION S-MEPH attenuated withdrawal behaviors following chronic cocaine or MDPV, perhaps through 5-HT release and/or 5-HT2 receptor interactions. The present data suggest S-MEPH may be a possible structural and pharmacological template to develop maintenance therapy for acute anxiety and depression during early withdrawal from psychostimulant abuse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helene L. Philogene-Khalid
- Department of Pharmacology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Callum Hicks
- Department of Pharmacology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Allen B. Reitz
- Fox Chase Chemical Diversity Center Inc., Doylestown, PA
| | - Lee-Yuan Liu-Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Scott M. Rawls
- Department of Pharmacology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University Philadelphia, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Olesti E, Farré M, Papaseit E, Krotonoulas A, Pujadas M, de la Torre R, Pozo ÓJ. Pharmacokinetics of Mephedrone and Its Metabolites in Human by LC-MS/MS. AAPS JOURNAL 2017; 19:1767-1778. [DOI: 10.1208/s12248-017-0132-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
31
|
White CM. Mephedrone and 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV): Synthetic Cathinones With Serious Health Implications. J Clin Pharmacol 2017; 56:1319-1325. [PMID: 27029951 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This article presents information on the predominant synthetic cathinones used in the Western world, mephedrone and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV). Synthetic cathinones are commonly used drugs of abuse in the United States and Europe, with numerous cases of patient harm and death. Patients exhibit many neurological, cardiovascular, and muscular adverse events and frequently require therapy to control psychotic or agitated states and acute kidney injury resulting from myopathy or rhabdomyolysis. There are potential genetic polymorphisms and drug interactions that might accentuate risk, but there are no studies evaluating to what extent this occurs or if it is clinically relevant. Clinicians should be aware of the known pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and reports of effects to detect potential issues and treat patients presenting with these adverse effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Michael White
- University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy & Hartford Hospital Department of Pharmacy, Storrs, CT, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Olesti E, Pujadas M, Papaseit E, Pérez-Mañá C, Pozo ÓJ, Farré M, de la Torre R. GC-MS Quantification Method for Mephedrone in Plasma and Urine: Application to Human Pharmacokinetics. J Anal Toxicol 2017; 41:100-106. [PMID: 27798075 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkw120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing consumption has been observed among young people of new psychoactive substances, including synthetic cathinone derivatives. The most well known of these is mephedrone whose use has been related to acute intoxication and fatality. Several methods able to detect mephedrone have been reported, although to date, none have been applied to human pharmacokinetic studies in a controlled setting. We developed a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique for mephedrone quantification in human plasma and urine. Plasma after deproteinization and urine were submitted to a liquid-liquid extraction and derivatization of the extract with MSTFA prior to analysis. Calibration curves covered concentration ranges in plasma between 5 and 300 ng/mL and in urine between 20 and 1,500 ng/mL. The method has been successfully applied to biological samples obtained from a pilot clinical trial intended to evaluate the human pharmacology of mephedrone and its relative bioavailability and pharmacokinetics. Six healthy males were administered 150 mg of mephedrone by the oral route in a randomized, double-blind, cross-over controlled trial. Peak plasma concentration (Cmax = 122.6 ± 32.9 ng/mL) was reached at 1 hour (0.5-2 h) post-drug administration. Mephedrone showed a rapid elimination half-life (t1/2 = 2.2 h) compared to other psychostimulants. Less than 15% of the dose was excreted in urine as a free-form. Mephedrone concentrations displayed a relevant inter-subject variability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eulàlia Olesti
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona 08003, Spain.,Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona 08003, Spain
| | - Mitona Pujadas
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona 08003, Spain.,CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CB06/03), CIBEROBN, Madrid, Spain
| | - Esther Papaseit
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona 08003, Spain.,School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Óscar J Pozo
- Bioanalysis Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona 08003, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona 08003, Spain.,Pompeu Fabra University (CEXS-UPF), Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona 08003, Spain.,CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CB06/03), CIBEROBN, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Impact of common clandestine structural modifications on synthetic cathinone "bath salt" pharmacokinetics. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2017; 328:18-24. [PMID: 28506835 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Since 2009, the synthetic cathinones ("bath salts") have risen in popularity as drugs of abuse. However, there are a paucity of studies that have determined the impact of functional group modifications in the synthetic cathinone chemical structures on plasma and central nervous system (CNS) pharmacokinetics. In the present study, we investigated the in vivo plasma and CNS pharmacokinetics of three synthetic cathinones whose structures differ by lengthening of the α-alkyl chain: methylone (-CH3), butylone (-CH2CH3), and pentylone (-CH2CH2CH3). Male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with a 20mg/kg subcutaneous dose of the individual synthetic cathinone. Blood samples were obtained at specific times from a jugular vein cannula over an 8hour period. Over a separate three-hour period, CNS samples were obtained using a microdialysis cannula surgically implanted into the lateral ventricle. In the plasma, pentylone, with the longest α-alkyl chain, displayed the highest Cmax and AUC0-∞, and the longest t1/2. Decreasing the α-alkyl chain length as in butylone and methylone significantly decreased the Cmax, AUC0-∞, and t1/2. The plasma pharmacokinetic values are consistent with the greater lipophilicity associated with α-alkyl side chain lengthening. Conversely, in the CNS, methylone and butylone displayed higher Cmax and AUC0-∞ values than pentylone. These contrary findings in the CNS and plasma demonstrate that lengthening of the α-alkyl chain of methylone, butylone, and pentylone yields differential pharmacokinetic properties in the CNS as compared to the plasma.
Collapse
|
34
|
Dignam G, Bigham C. Novel psychoactive substances: a practical approach to dealing with toxicity from legal highs. BJA Educ 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/bjaed/mkw068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
|
35
|
Aarde SM, Taffe MA. Predicting the Abuse Liability of Entactogen-Class, New and Emerging Psychoactive Substances via Preclinical Models of Drug Self-administration. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:145-164. [PMID: 27909988 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Animal models of drug self-administration are currently the gold standard for making predictions regarding the relative likelihood that a recreational drug substance will lead to continued use and addiction. Such models have been found to have high predictive accuracy and discriminative validity for a number of drug classes including ethanol, nicotine, opioids, and psychostimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine. Members of the entactogen class of psychostimulants (drugs that produce an "open mind state" including feelings of interpersonal closeness, intimacy and empathy) have been less frequently studied in self-administration models. The prototypical entactogen 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; "Ecstasy") supports self-administration but not with the same consistency nor with the same efficacy as structurally related drugs amphetamine or methamphetamine. Consistent with these observations, MDMA use is more episodic in the majority of those who use it frequently. Nevertheless, substantial numbers of MDMA users will meet the criteria for substance dependence at some point in their use history. This review examines the currently available evidence from rodent self-administration studies of MDMA and two of the new and emerging psychoactive substances (NPS) that produce entactogen type neuropharmacological responses - mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone; 4MMC; "meow meow") and methylone (3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone). Overall, the current evidence predicts that these NPS entactogens have enhanced abuse liability compared with MDMA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shawn M Aarde
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders Mailcode SP30-2400, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Michael A Taffe
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders Mailcode SP30-2400, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Papaseit E, Moltó J, Muga R, Torrens M, de la Torre R, Farré M. Clinical Pharmacology of the Synthetic Cathinone Mephedrone. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:313-331. [PMID: 28012094 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
4-Methyl-N-methylcathinone (mephedrone) is a popular new psychoactive substance (NPS) that is structurally related to the parent compound cathinone, the β-keto analogue of amphetamine. Mephedrone appeared on the street drug market as a substitute for 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) and was subsequently banned due to the potential health risks associated with its use. Nevertheless, mephedrone continues to be widely consumed among specific populations, with unique patterns of misuse. To date, most information about the biological effects of mephedrone comes from user experiences, epidemiological data, clinical cases, toxicological findings, and animal studies, whilst there are very few data regarding its human pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. This chapter reviews the available published data on patterns of mephedrone use, its acute and chronic effects, and its pharmacokinetic properties. More human research is needed to elucidate the safety, toxicity, and addiction potential of mephedrone and related NPS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Esther Papaseit
- Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - José Moltó
- Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Fundació Lluita contra la Sida, Badalona, Spain
| | - Robert Muga
- Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
- IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Tyrkkö E, Andersson M, Kronstrand R. The Toxicology of New Psychoactive Substances: Synthetic Cathinones and Phenylethylamines. Ther Drug Monit 2016; 38:190-216. [PMID: 26587869 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New psychoactive substances (NPSs) are substitutes for classical drugs of abuse and there are now compounds available from all groups of classical drugs of abuse. During 2014, the number of synthetic cathinones increased dramatically and, together with phenylethylamines, they dominate the NPS markets in the European Union. In total, 31 cathinones and 9 phenylethylamines were encountered in 2014. The aim of this article was to summarize the existing knowledge about the basic pharmacology, metabolism, and human toxicology of relevant synthetic cathinones and phenylethylamines. Compared with existing reviews, we have also compiled the existing case reports from both fatal and nonfatal intoxications. METHODS We performed a comprehensive literature search using bibliographic databases PubMed and Web of Science, complemented with Google Scholar. The focus of the literature search was on original articles, case reports, and previously published review articles published in 2014 or earlier. RESULTS The rapid increase of NPSs is a growing concern and sets new challenges not only for societies in drug prevention and legislation but also in clinical and forensic toxicology. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that the pharmacodynamic profile of cathinones is similar to that of other psychomotor stimulants. Metabolism studies show that cathinones and phenylethylamines are extensively metabolized; however, the parent compound is usually detectable in human urine. In vitro studies have shown that many cathinones and phenylethylamines are metabolized by CYP2D6 enzymes. This indicates that these drugs may have many possible drug-drug interactions and that genetic polymorphism may influence their toxicity. However, the clinical and toxicological relevance of CYP2D6 in adverse effects of cathinones and phenylethylamines is questionable, because these compounds are metabolized by other enzymes as well. The toxidromes commonly encountered after ingestion of cathinones and phenylethylamines are mainly of sympathomimetic and hallucinogenic character with a risk of excited delirium and life-threatening cardiovascular effects. CONCLUSIONS The acute and chronic toxicity of many NPSs is unknown or very sparsely investigated. There is a need for evidence-based-treatment recommendations for acute intoxications and a demand for new strategies to analyze these compounds in clinical and forensic cases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elli Tyrkkö
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Human Pharmacology of Mephedrone in Comparison with MDMA. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:2704-13. [PMID: 27206266 PMCID: PMC5026738 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2016.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) is a novel psychoactive substance popular among drug users because it displays similar effects to MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, ecstasy). Mephedrone consumption has been associated with undesirable effects and fatal intoxications. At present, there is no research available on its pharmacological effects in humans under controlled and experimental administration. This study aims to evaluate the clinical pharmacology of mephedrone and its relative abuse liability compared with MDMA. Twelve male volunteers participated in a randomized, double-blind, crossover, and placebo-controlled trial. The single oral dose conditions were: mephedrone 200 mg, MDMA 100 mg, and placebo. Outcome variables included physiological, subjective, and psychomotor effects, and pharmacokinetic parameters. The protocol was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02232789). Mephedrone produced a significant increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, and pupillary diameter. It elicited stimulant-like effects, euphoria, and well-being, and induced mild changes in perceptions with similar ratings to those observed after MDMA administration although effects peaked earlier and were shorter in duration. Maximal plasma concentration values for mephedrone and MDMA peaked at 1.25 h and 2.00 h, respectively. The elimination half-life for mephedrone was 2.15 h and 7.89 h for MDMA. In a similar manner to MDMA, mephedrone exhibits high abuse liability. Its earlier onset and shorter duration of effects, probably related to its short elimination half-life, could explain a more compulsive pattern of use as described by the users.
Collapse
|
39
|
Mayer FP, Wimmer L, Dillon-Carter O, Partilla JS, Burchardt NV, Mihovilovic MD, Baumann MH, Sitte HH. Phase I metabolites of mephedrone display biological activity as substrates at monoamine transporters. Br J Pharmacol 2016; 173:2657-68. [PMID: 27391165 PMCID: PMC4978154 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE 4-Methyl-N-methylcathinone (mephedrone) is a synthetic stimulant that acts as a substrate-type releaser at transporters for dopamine (DAT), noradrenaline (NET) and 5-HT (SERT). Upon systemic administration, mephedrone is metabolized to several phase I compounds: the N-demethylated metabolite, 4-methylcathinone (nor-mephedrone); the ring-hydroxylated metabolite, 4-hydroxytolylmephedrone (4-OH-mephedrone); and the reduced keto-metabolite, dihydromephedrone. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We used in vitro assays to compare the effects of mephedrone and synthetically prepared metabolites on transporter-mediated uptake and release in HEK293 cells expressing human monoamine transporters and in rat brain synaptosomes. In vivo microdialysis was employed to examine the effects of i.v. metabolite injection (1 and 3 mg·kg(-1) ) on extracellular dopamine and 5-HT levels in rat nucleus accumbens. KEY RESULTS In cells expressing transporters, mephedrone and its metabolites inhibited uptake, although dihydromephedrone was weak overall. In cells and synaptosomes, nor-mephedrone and 4-OH-mephedrone served as transportable substrates, inducing release via monoamine transporters. When administered to rats, mephedrone and nor-mephedrone produced elevations in extracellular dopamine and 5-HT, whereas 4-OH-mephedrone did not. Mephedrone and nor-mephedrone, but not 4-OH-mephedrone, induced locomotor activity. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Our results demonstrate that phase I metabolites of mephedrone are transporter substrates (i.e. releasers) at DAT, NET and SERT, but dihydromephedrone is weak in this regard. When administered in vivo, nor-mephedrone increases extracellular dopamine and 5-HT in the brain whereas 4-OH-mephedrone does not, suggesting the latter metabolite does not penetrate the blood-brain barrier. Future studies should examine the pharmacokinetics of nor-mephedrone to determine its possible contribution to the in vivo effects produced by mephedrone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F P Mayer
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Vienna, Austria
| | - L Wimmer
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - O Dillon-Carter
- Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU), Intramural Research Program (IRP), NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - J S Partilla
- Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU), Intramural Research Program (IRP), NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - N V Burchardt
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Vienna, Austria
| | - M D Mihovilovic
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - M H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU), Intramural Research Program (IRP), NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - H H Sitte
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Vienna, Austria
- Center for Addiction Research and Science, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Ellefsen KN, Concheiro M, Huestis MA. Synthetic cathinone pharmacokinetics, analytical methods, and toxicological findings from human performance and postmortem cases. Drug Metab Rev 2016; 48:237-65. [PMID: 27249313 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2016.1188937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are commonly abused novel psychoactive substances (NPS). We present a comprehensive systematic review addressing in vitro and in vivo synthetic cathinone pharmacokinetics, analytical methods for detection and quantification in biological matrices, and toxicological findings from human performance and postmortem toxicology cases. Few preclinical administration studies examined synthetic cathinone pharmacokinetic profiles (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion), and only one investigated metabolite pharmacokinetics. Synthetic cathinone metabolic profiling studies, primarily with human liver microsomes, elucidated metabolite structures and identified suitable biomarkers to extend detection windows beyond those provided by parent compounds. Generally, cathinone derivatives underwent ketone reduction, carbonylation of the pyrrolidine ring, and oxidative reactions, with phase II metabolites also detected. Reliable analytical methods are necessary for cathinone identification in biological matrices to document intake and link adverse events to specific compounds and concentrations. NPS analytical methods are constrained in their ability to detect new emerging synthetic cathinones due to limited commercially available reference standards and continuous development of new analogs. Immunoassay screening methods are especially affected, but also gas-chromatography and liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry confirmation methods. Non-targeted high-resolution-mass spectrometry screening methods are advantageous, as they allow for retrospective data analysis and easier addition of new synthetic cathinones to existing methods. Lack of controlled administration studies in humans complicate interpretation of synthetic cathinones in biological matrices, as dosing information is typically unknown. Furthermore, antemortem and postmortem concentrations often overlap and the presence of other psychoactive substances are typically found in combination with cathinones derivatives, further confounding result interpretation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kayla N Ellefsen
- a Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, IRP , National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health , Baltimore , MD , USA ;,b Program in Toxicology , University of Maryland Baltimore , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Marta Concheiro
- c Department of Sciences, John Jay College of Criminal Justice , City University of New York , New York , NY , USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- a Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, IRP , National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health , Baltimore , MD , USA
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Hutsell BA, Baumann MH, Partilla JS, Banks ML, Vekariya R, Glennon RA, Negus SS. Abuse-related neurochemical and behavioral effects of cathinone and 4-methylcathinone stereoisomers in rats. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2016; 26:288-297. [PMID: 26738428 PMCID: PMC5331761 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cathinone and many of its analogs produce behavioral effects by promoting transporter-mediated release of the monoamine neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine and/or serotonin. Stereoselectivity is one determinant of neurochemical and behavioral effects of cathinone analogs. This study compared effectiveness of the S(-) and R(+) enantiomers of cathinone and 4-methylcathinone to produce in vitro monoamine release and in vivo abuse-related behavioral effects in rats. For neurochemical studies, drug effects were evaluated on monoamine release through dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin transporters (DAT, NET and SERT, respectively) in rat brain synaptosomes. For behavioral studies, drug effects were evaluated on responding for electrical brain stimulation in an intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) procedure. The cathinone enantiomers differed in potency [S(-)>R(+)], but both enantiomers were >50-fold selective at promoting monoamine release through DAT vs. SERT, and both enantiomers produced ICSS facilitation. The 4-methylcathinone enantiomers also differed in potency [S(-)>R(+)]; however, in neurochemical studies, the decrease in potency from S(-) to R(+)4-methylcathinone was less for DAT than for SERT, and as a result, DAT vs. SERT selectivity was greater for R(+) than for S(-)4-methylcathinone (4.1- vs. 1.2-fold). Moreover, in behavioral studies, S(-)4-methylcathinone produced only ICSS depression, whereas R(+)4-methylcathinone produced ICSS facilitation. This study provides further evidence for stereoselectivity in neurochemical and behavioral actions of cathinone analogs. More importantly, stereoselective 4-methylcathinone effects on ICSS illustrate the potential for diametrically opposite effects of enantiomers in a preclinical behavioral assay of abuse potential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Blake A Hutsell
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 410 N. 12th St., PO Box 980613, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - John S Partilla
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Matthew L Banks
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 410 N. 12th St., PO Box 980613, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
| | - Rakesh Vekariya
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Richard A Glennon
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - S Stevens Negus
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 410 N. 12th St., PO Box 980613, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Ciudad-Roberts A, Duart-Castells L, Camarasa J, Pubill D, Escubedo E. The combination of ethanol with mephedrone increases the signs of neurotoxicity and impairs neurogenesis and learning in adolescent CD-1 mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 293:10-20. [PMID: 26747301 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2015.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A new family of psychostimulants, under the name of cathinones, has broken into the market in the last decade. In light of the fact that around 95% of cathinone consumers have been reported to combine them with alcoholic drinks, we sought to study the consequences of the concomitant administration of ethanol on mephedrone -induced neurotoxicity. Adolescent male Swiss-CD1 mice were administered four times in one day, every 2h, with saline, mephedrone (25mg/kg), ethanol (2; 1.5; 1.5; 1g/kg) and their combination at a room temperature of 26±2°C. The combination with ethanol impaired mephedrone-induced decreases in dopamine transporter and tyrosine hydroxylase in the frontal cortex; and in serotonin transporter and tryptophan hydroxylase in the hippocampus by approximately 2-fold, 7days post-treatment. Furthermore, these decreases correlated with a 2-fold increase in lipid peroxidation, measured as concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA), 24h post-treatment, and were accompanied by changes in oxidative stress-related enzymes. Ethanol also notably potentiated mephedrone-induced negative effects on learning and memory, as well as hippocampal neurogenesis, measured through the Morris water maze (MWM) and 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine staining, respectively. These results are of special significance, since alcohol is widely co-abused with amphetamine derivatives such as mephedrone, especially during adolescence, a crucial stage in brain maturation. Given that the hippocampus is greatly involved in learning and memory processes, normal brain development in young adults could be affected with permanent behavioral consequences after this type of drug co-abuse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Ciudad-Roberts
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section); Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Leticia Duart-Castells
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section); Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jorge Camarasa
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section); Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Pubill
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section); Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section); Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Linhart I, Himl M, Židková M, Balíková M, Lhotková E, Páleníček T. Metabolic profile of mephedrone: Identification of nor-mephedrone conjugates with dicarboxylic acids as a new type of xenobiotic phase II metabolites. Toxicol Lett 2015; 240:114-21. [PMID: 26541208 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic profile of mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone, 4-MMC), a frequently abused recreational drug, was determined in rats in vivo. The urine of rats dosed with a subcutaneous bolus dose of 20mg 4-MMC/kg was analysed by LC/MS. Ten phase I and five phase II metabolites were identified by comparison of their retention times and MS(2) spectra with those of authentic reference standards and/or with the MS(2) spectra of previously identified metabolites. The main metabolic pathway was N-demethylation leading to normephedrone (4-methylcathinone, 4-MC) which was further conjugated with succinic, glutaric and adipic acid. Other phase I metabolic pathways included oxidation of the 4-methyl group, carbonyl reduction leading to dihydro-metabolites and ω-oxidation at the position 3'. Five of the metabolites detected, namely, 4-carboxynormephedrone (4-carboxycathinone, 4-CC), 4-carboxydihydronormephedrone (4-carboxynorephedrine, 4-CNE), hydroxytolyldihydro-normephedrone (4-hydroxymethylnorephedrine, 4-OH-MNE) and conjugates of 4-MC with glutaric and adipic acid, have not been reported as yet. The last two conjugates represent a novel, hitherto unexploited, type of phase II metabolites in mammals together with an analogous succinic acid conjugate of 4-MC identified by Pozo et al. (2015). These conjugates might be potentially of great importance in the metabolism of other psychoactive amines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Igor Linhart
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Michal Himl
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Monika Židková
- Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marie Balíková
- Institute of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Lhotková
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Páleníček
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Conduite automobile et amphétamines dans le sang – bases bibliographiques pour un consensus de la Société française de toxicologie analytique. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
45
|
Shimshoni JA, Britzi M, Sobol E, Willenz U, Nutt D, Edery N. 3-Methyl-methcathinone: Pharmacokinetic profile evaluation in pigs in relation to pharmacodynamics. J Psychopharmacol 2015; 29:734-43. [PMID: 25804420 DOI: 10.1177/0269881115576687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
3-Methyl-methcathinone (3-MMC) is a novel, synthetic cathinone analog, recently linked to poisoning events among recreational users. The lack of pharmacological data on 3-MMC, prompted us to explore its pharmacokinetic profile as well as its effect on feeding behavior, weight gain, and serum biochemistry. 3-MMC was administered to male pigs (n=3, three months old) as a single intravenous dose (0.3 mg/kg), followed by a multiple oral dose administration (3 mg/kg) for five days and plasma and tissue concentrations determined. Concomitantly a control group consisting of two healthy male pigs received saline solution instead of 3-MMC according to the same administration schedule. 3-MMC effects on complete blood count, biochemistry, feed intake, and body weight were examined. The pigs were sacrificed and submitted to a pathological and histopathological examination. 3-MMC displayed rapid absorption with a peak concentration achieved within 5-10 min after oral ingestion and a plasma half-life of 0.8 h. The bioavailability was about 7%. 3-MMC tissue levels were below detectable levels 24 h after the last oral dosage. No treatment-related clinical signs were observed and no histopathological findings were detected. 3-MMC caused significant change in daily feed intake and weight gain over time. The animals treated with 3-MMC displayed a lower rate of increase in mean body weight. Caution needs to be practiced in terms of extrapolating the present data to human safety, due to the low sample size, low dosage, and the relatively short study duration as well as the lack of data on abuse potential of 3-MMC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jakob A Shimshoni
- Department of Toxicology, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Malka Britzi
- National Residue Control Laboratory, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Eyal Sobol
- National Residue Control Laboratory, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Udi Willenz
- The Institute of Animal Research, Kibbutz Lahav, Israel
| | - David Nutt
- Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Nir Edery
- Department of Pathology, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Bet Dagan, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
López-Arnau R, Martínez-Clemente J, Rodrigo T, Pubill D, Camarasa J, Escubedo E. Neuronal changes and oxidative stress in adolescent rats after repeated exposure to mephedrone. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 286:27-35. [PMID: 25817894 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2015.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Revised: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Mephedrone is a new designer drug of abuse. We have investigated the neurochemical/enzymatic changes after mephedrone administration to adolescent rats (3×25 mg/kg, s.c. in a day, with a 2 h interval between doses, for two days) at high ambient temperature (26±2 °C), a schedule that intends to model human recreational abuse. In addition, we have studied the effect of mephedrone in spatial learning and memory. The drug caused a transient decrease in weight gain. After the first dose, animals showed hypothermia but, after the subsequent doses, temperature raised over the values of saline-treated group. We observed the development of tolerance to these thermoregulatory effects of mephedrone. Mephedrone induced a reduction of the densities of dopamine (30% in the frontal cortex) and serotonin (40% in the frontal cortex and the hippocampus and 48% in the striatum) transporters without microgliosis. These deficits were also accompanied by a parallel decrease in the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase and tryptophan hydroxylase 2. These changes matched with a down-regulation of D2 dopamine receptors in the striatum. Mephedrone also induced an oxidative stress evidenced by an increase of lipid peroxidation in the frontal cortex, and accompanied by a rise in glutathione peroxidase levels in all studied brain areas. Drug-treated animals displayed an impairment of the reference memory in the Morris water maze one week beyond the cessation of drug exposure, while the spatial learning process seems to be preserved. These findings raise concerns about the neuronal long-term effects of mephedrone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raúl López-Arnau
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Martínez-Clemente
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Teresa Rodrigo
- Animal Experimentation Unit of Psychology and Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Pubill
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jorge Camarasa
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Chemistry (Pharmacology Section), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Abstract
The abuse of synthetic psychoactive substances known as "designer drugs," or "new psychoactive substances" (NPS), is increasing at an alarming rate. NPS are purchased as alternatives to traditional illicit drugs of abuse and are manufactured to circumvent laws regulating the sale and use of controlled substances. Synthetic cathinones (i.e., "bath salts") and synthetic cannabinoids (i.e., "spice") are two types of NPS that have received substantial media attention. Although low recreational doses of bath salts or spice compounds can produce desirable effects, high doses or chronic exposure often leads to dangerous medical consequences, including psychosis, violent behaviors, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and even death. Despite the popularity of NPS, there is a paucity of scientific data about these drugs. Here we provide a brief up-to-date review describing the mechanisms of action and neurobiological effects of synthetic cathinones and cannabinoids.
Collapse
|
48
|
Gregg RA, Baumann MH, Partilla JS, Bonano JS, Vouga A, Tallarida CS, Velvadapu V, Smith GR, Peet MM, Reitz AB, Negus SS, Rawls SM. Stereochemistry of mephedrone neuropharmacology: enantiomer-specific behavioural and neurochemical effects in rats. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 172:883-94. [PMID: 25255824 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Revised: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Synthetic cathinones, commonly referred to as 'bath salts', are a group of amphetamine-like drugs gaining popularity worldwide. 4-Methylmethcathinone (mephedrone, MEPH) is the most commonly abused synthetic cathinone in the UK, and exerts its effects by acting as a substrate-type releaser at monoamine transporters. Similar to other cathinone-related compounds, MEPH has a chiral centre and exists stably as two enantiomers: R-mephedrone (R-MEPH) and S-mephedrone (S-MEPH). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Here, we provide the first investigation into the neurochemical and behavioural effects of R-MEPH and S-MEPH. We analysed both enantiomers in rat brain synaptosome neurotransmitter release assays and also investigated their effects on locomotor activity (e.g. ambulatory activity and repetitive movements), behavioural sensitization and reward. KEY RESULTS Both enantiomers displayed similar potency as substrates (i.e. releasers) at dopamine transporters, but R-MEPH was much less potent than S-MEPH as a substrate at 5-HT transporters. Locomotor activity was evaluated in acute and repeated administration paradigms, with R-MEPH producing greater repetitive movements than S-MEPH across multiple doses. After repeated drug exposure, only R-MEPH produced sensitization of repetitive movements. R-MEPH produced a conditioned place preference whereas S-MEPH did not. Lastly, R-MEPH and S-MEPH produced biphasic profiles in an assay of intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS), but R-MEPH produced greater ICSS facilitation than S-MEPH. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Our data are the first to demonstrate stereospecific effects of MEPH enantiomers and suggest that the predominant dopaminergic actions of R-MEPH (i.e. the lack of serotonergic actions) render this stereoisomer more stimulant-like when compared with S-MEPH. This hypothesis warrants further study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan A Gregg
- Department of Pharmacology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Center for Substance Abuse Research, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Green AR, King MV, Shortall SE, Fone KCF. The preclinical pharmacology of mephedrone; not just MDMA by another name. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:2251-68. [PMID: 24654568 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2013] [Revised: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The substituted β-keto amphetamine mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) was banned in the UK in April 2010 but continues to be used recreationally in the UK and elsewhere. Users have compared its psychoactive effects to those of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy'). This review critically examines the preclinical data on mephedrone that have appeared over the last 2-3 years and, where relevant, compares the pharmacological effects of mephedrone in experimental animals with those obtained following MDMA administration. Both mephedrone and MDMA enhance locomotor activity and change rectal temperature in rodents. However, both of these responses are of short duration following mephedrone compared with MDMA probably because mephedrone has a short plasma half-life and rapid metabolism. Mephedrone appears to have no pharmacologically active metabolites, unlike MDMA. There is also little evidence that mephedrone induces a neurotoxic decrease in monoamine concentration in rat or mouse brain, again in contrast to MDMA. Mephedrone and MDMA both induce release of dopamine and 5-HT in the brain as shown by in vivo and in vitro studies. The effect on 5-HT release in vivo is more marked with mephedrone even though both drugs have similar affinity for the dopamine and 5-HT transporters in vitro. The profile of action of mephedrone on monoamine receptors and transporters suggests it could have a high abuse liability and several studies have found that mephedrone supports self-administration at a higher rate than MDMA. Overall, current data suggest that mephedrone not only differs from MDMA in its pharmacological profile, behavioural and neurotoxic effects, but also differs from other cathinones.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A R Green
- School of Life Sciences, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Pozo ÓJ, Ibáñez M, Sancho JV, Lahoz-Beneytez J, Farré M, Papaseit E, de la Torre R, Hernández F. Mass spectrometric evaluation of mephedrone in vivo human metabolism: identification of phase I and phase II metabolites, including a novel succinyl conjugate. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 43:248-57. [PMID: 25468950 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.114.061416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, many new designer drugs have emerged, including the group of cathinone derivatives. One frequently occurring drug is mephedrone; although mephedrone was originally considered as a "legal high" product, it is currently banned in most Western countries. Despite the banning, abuse of the drug and seizures are continuously reported. Although the metabolism of mephedrone has been studied in rats or in vitro using human liver microsomes, to the best of our knowledge, no dedicated study with human volunteers has been performed for studying the in vivo metabolism of mephedrone in humans. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish the actual human metabolism of mephedrone and to compare it with other models. For this purpose, urine samples of two healthy volunteers, who ingested 200 mg mephedrone orally, were taken before administration and 4 hours after substance intake. The discovery and identification of the phase I and phase II metabolites of mephedrone were based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, operating in the so-called MS(E) mode. Six phase I metabolites and four phase II metabolites were identified, four of them not previously reported in the literature. The structure of four of the detected metabolites was confirmed by synthesis of the suggested compounds. Remarkably, a mephedrone metabolite conjugated with succinic acid has been identified and confirmed by synthesis. According to the reviewed literature, this is the first time that this type of conjugate is reported for human metabolism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Óscar J Pozo
- Bioanalysis Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain (O.J.P.); Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain (M.I., J.V.S., F.H.); Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (J.L.-B., M.F., E.P., R.d.l.T.); and Warwick Systems Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom (J.L.-B.)
| | - María Ibáñez
- Bioanalysis Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain (O.J.P.); Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain (M.I., J.V.S., F.H.); Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (J.L.-B., M.F., E.P., R.d.l.T.); and Warwick Systems Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom (J.L.-B.)
| | - Juan V Sancho
- Bioanalysis Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain (O.J.P.); Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain (M.I., J.V.S., F.H.); Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (J.L.-B., M.F., E.P., R.d.l.T.); and Warwick Systems Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom (J.L.-B.)
| | - Julio Lahoz-Beneytez
- Bioanalysis Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain (O.J.P.); Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain (M.I., J.V.S., F.H.); Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (J.L.-B., M.F., E.P., R.d.l.T.); and Warwick Systems Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom (J.L.-B.)
| | - Magí Farré
- Bioanalysis Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain (O.J.P.); Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain (M.I., J.V.S., F.H.); Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (J.L.-B., M.F., E.P., R.d.l.T.); and Warwick Systems Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom (J.L.-B.)
| | - Esther Papaseit
- Bioanalysis Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain (O.J.P.); Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain (M.I., J.V.S., F.H.); Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (J.L.-B., M.F., E.P., R.d.l.T.); and Warwick Systems Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom (J.L.-B.)
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Bioanalysis Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain (O.J.P.); Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain (M.I., J.V.S., F.H.); Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (J.L.-B., M.F., E.P., R.d.l.T.); and Warwick Systems Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom (J.L.-B.)
| | - Félix Hernández
- Bioanalysis Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain (O.J.P.); Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain (M.I., J.V.S., F.H.); Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (J.L.-B., M.F., E.P., R.d.l.T.); and Warwick Systems Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom (J.L.-B.)
| |
Collapse
|