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Moke BI, Shipman ML, Lui S, Corbit L. Ceftriaxone reverses diet-induced deficits in goal-directed control. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024:10.1007/s00213-024-06621-w. [PMID: 38822850 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06621-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE Obesity is associated with numerous health risks and ever-increasing rates are a significant global concern. However, despite weight loss attempts many people have difficulty maintaining weight loss. Previous studies in animals have shown that chronic access to an obesogenic diet can disrupt goal-directed behavior, impairing the ability of animals to flexibly adjust food-seeking behavior following changes in the value of earned outcomes. Changes in behavioral control have been linked to disruption of glutamate transmission in the dorsal medial striatum (DMS), a region critical for the acquisition and expression of goal-directed behavior. OBJECTIVES The goal of this study was to test whether ceftriaxone, a beta-lactam antibiotic shown elsewhere to upregulate the expression of the glutamate transporter GLT-1, would improve goal-directed control following long-term exposure to an obesogenic diet. METHODS Male and female rats were given access to either standard chow or chow plus sweetened condensed milk (SCM) for 6 weeks. Access to SCM was ended and rats received daily injections of either ceftriaxone or saline for 6 days. Rats were then trained to press a lever to earn a novel food reward and, finally, were assessed for sensitivity to outcome devaluation. Histological analyses examined changes to GLT-1 protein levels and morphological changes to astrocytes, within the DMS. RESULTS We found that ceftriaxone robustly restored goal-directed behavior in animals following long-term exposure to SCM. While we did not observe changes in protein levels of GLT-1 in the DMS, we observed that SCM induced changes in the morphology of astrocytes in the DMS, and that ceftriaxone mitigated these changes. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that long-term access to a SCM diet impairs goal-directed behavior while also altering the morphology of astrocytes in the DMS. Furthermore, these results suggest that ceftriaxone administration can reverse the impairment of goal-directed behavior potentially through its actions on astrocytes in decision-making circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin-Israel Moke
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, The University of Toronto, 25 Harbord Street, ON, M5S 3G5, Toronto, Canada
| | - Megan L Shipman
- Department of Psychology, The University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G3, Canada
| | - Simon Lui
- Department of Psychology, The University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G3, Canada
| | - Laura Corbit
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, The University of Toronto, 25 Harbord Street, ON, M5S 3G5, Toronto, Canada.
- Department of Psychology, The University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G3, Canada.
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2
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Grodin EN. Neuroimmune modulators as novel pharmacotherapies for substance use disorders. Brain Behav Immun Health 2024; 36:100744. [PMID: 38435721 PMCID: PMC10906159 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2024.100744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024] Open
Abstract
One promising avenue of research is the use of neuroimmune modulators to treat substance use disorders (SUDs). Neuroimmune modulators target the interactions between the nervous system and immune system, which have been found to play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of SUDs. Multiple classes of substances produce alterations to neuroimmune signaling and peripheral immune function, including alcohol, opioids, and psychostimulants Preclinical studies have shown that neuroimmune modulators can reduce drug-seeking behavior and prevent relapse in animal models of SUDs. Additionally, early-phase clinical trials have demonstrated the safety and feasibility of using neuroimmune modulators as a treatment for SUDs in humans. These therapeutics can be used as stand-alone treatments or as adjunctive. This review summarizes the current state of the field and provides future directions with a specific focus on personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica N. Grodin
- Department of Psychology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Cousins Center for Psychoneuroimmunology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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3
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Duclot F, Wu L, Wilkinson CS, Kabbaj M, Knackstedt LA. Ceftriaxone alters the gut microbiome composition and reduces alcohol intake in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. Alcohol 2024:S0741-8329(24)00015-6. [PMID: 38290696 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2024.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Ceftriaxone is an antibiotic that increases central nervous system (CNS) protein expression of the glutamate transporters GLT-1 and xCT and ameliorates pathological behaviors in rodent models of neurological disease and substance use disorder. However, little ceftriaxone passes through the blood-brain-barrier, the CNS binding partner of ceftriaxone is unknown, and ceftriaxone does not consistently upregulate GLT-1 and xCT in cell culture. Ceftriaxone alters the gut microbiome composition in rodents and humans, and the microbiome-gut-brain axis regulates drug-seeking. Thus, here we test the hypothesis that ceftriaxone reduces alcohol intake while ameliorating alcohol-induced disruption of the gut microbiome composition. Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats received intermittent access to alcohol (IAA) while controls received access to only water. Following 17 IAA sessions, ceftriaxone/vehicle treatment was given for 5 days. Analysis of the gut microbiome composition was assessed by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing conducted on fecal pellets collected prior to and after alcohol consumption and following ceftriaxone treatment. Male rats displayed escalated alcohol intake and preference over the course of the 17 sessions; however, total alcohol intake did not differ between the sexes. Ceftriaxone reduced alcohol intake and preference in male and female rats. While alcohol affected a diverse set of amplicon sequencing variants (ASV), ceftriaxone markedly reduced the diversity of microbial communities reflected by a blooming of the Enterococcaceae family. The remaining effects of ceftriaxone, however, encompassed families both affected and unaffected by prior alcohol drinking and highlight the Ruminococcaceae and Muribaculaceae families as bidirectionally modulated by alcohol and ceftriaxone. Altogether, our study confirms that ceftriaxone reduces alcohol intake in rats and partially reverses alcohol-induced dysbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Duclot
- Florida State University, Biomedical Sciences Department, Tallahassee, FL.
| | - Lizhen Wu
- University of Florida, Psychology Department, Gainesville, FL.
| | - Courtney S Wilkinson
- University of Florida, Psychology Department, Gainesville, FL; Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
| | - Mohamed Kabbaj
- Florida State University, Biomedical Sciences Department, Tallahassee, FL.
| | - Lori A Knackstedt
- University of Florida, Psychology Department, Gainesville, FL; Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
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4
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Alasmari MS, Almohammed OA, Hammad AM, Altulayhi KA, Alkadi BK, Alasmari AF, Alqahtani F, Sari Y, Alasmari F. Effects of Beta Lactams on Behavioral Outcomes of Substance Use Disorders: A Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Studies. Neuroscience 2024; 537:58-83. [PMID: 38036059 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2023.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Preclinical studies demonstrated that beta-lactams have neuroprotective effects in conditions involving glutamate neuroexcitotoxicity, including substance use disorders (SUDs). This meta-analysis aims to analyze the existing evidences on the effects of beta-lactams as glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1) upregulators in animal models of SUDs, identification of gaps in the literature, and setting the stage for potential translation into clinical phases. METHODS Meta-analysis was conducted on preclinical studies retrieved systematically from MEDLINE and ScienceDirect databases. Abused substances were identified by refereeing to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). The results were quantitatively described with a focus on the behavioral outcomes. Treatment effect sizes were described using standardized mean difference, and they were pooled using random effect model. I2-statistic was used to assess heterogeneity, and Funnel plot and Egger's test were used for assessment of publication bias. RESULTS Literature search yielded a total of 71 studies that were eligible to be included in the analysis. Through these studies, the effects of beta-lactams were evaluated in animal models of nicotine, cannabis, amphetamines, synthetic cathinone, opioids, ethanol, and cocaine use disorders as well as steroids-related aggressive behaviors. Meta-analysis showed that treatments with beta-lactams consistently reduced the pooled undesired effects of the abused substances in several paradigms, including drug-self administration, conditioned place preference, drug seeking behaviors, hyperlocomotion, withdrawal syndromes, tolerance to analgesic effects, hyperalgesia, and hyperthermia. CONCLUSION This meta-analysis revealed that enhancing GLT-1 expression in the brain through beta-lactams seemed to be a promising treatment approach in the context of substance use disorders, as indicated by results in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed S Alasmari
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Omar A Almohammed
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Alaa M Hammad
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan, Amman 11733, Jordan
| | - Khalid A Altulayhi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bader K Alkadi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah F Alasmari
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Faleh Alqahtani
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Youssef Sari
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, the University of Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Fawaz Alasmari
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia.
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Esmaili-Shahzade-Ali-Akbari P, Ghaderi A, Hosseini SMM, Nejat F, Saeedi-Mofrad M, Karimi-Houyeh M, Ghattan A, Etemadi A, Rasoulian E, Khezri A. β_lactam antibiotics against drug addiction: A novel therapeutic option. Drug Dev Res 2023; 84:1411-1426. [PMID: 37602907 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.22110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Drug addiction as a problem for the health of the individual and the society is the result of a complex process in which there is an interaction between brain nuclei and neurotransmitters (such as glutamate). β-lactam antibiotics, due to their enhancing properties on the glutamate transporter glutamate transporter-1, can affect and counteract the addictive mechanisms of drugs through the regulation of extracellular glutamate. Since glutamate is a key neurotransmitter in the development of drug addiction, it seems that β-lactams can be considered as a promising treatment for addiction. However, more research in this field is necessary to identify other mechanisms involved in their effectiveness. This article is a review of the studies conducted on the effect of β-lactam administration in preventing the development of drug addiction, as well as their possible cellular and molecular mechanisms. This review suggests the clinical use of β-lactam antibiotics that have weak antimicrobial properties (such as clavulanic acid) in the treatment of drug dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amir Ghaderi
- Department of Addiction Studies, School of Medicine, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | | | - Fatemeh Nejat
- Department of Biology and Health Sciences, Meredith College, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | | | | | - Alireza Ghattan
- Student Research Committee, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Amirreza Etemadi
- Student Research Committee, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Elham Rasoulian
- Department of Medical-Surgical Nursing, School of Nursing Midwifery, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Arina Khezri
- Department of Anesthesia, School of Allied Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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6
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Birmingham EA, Wickens MM, Kirkland JM, Knouse MC, McGrath AG, Briand LA. Circulating ovarian hormones interact with protein interacting with C kinase (PICK1) within the medial prefrontal cortex to influence cocaine seeking in female mice. Horm Behav 2023; 155:105408. [PMID: 37541099 PMCID: PMC10543586 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2023.105408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023]
Abstract
Protein interacting with C kinase 1 (PICK1) is an AMPA receptor binding protein that works in conjunction with glutamate receptor interacting protein (GRIP) to balance the number of GluA2-containing AMPARs in the synapse. In male mice, disrupting PICK1 in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) leads to a decrease in cue-induced cocaine seeking and disrupting GRIP in the mPFC has the opposing effect, consistent with other evidence that removal of GluA2-containing AMPARs potentiates reinstatement. However, PICK1 does not seem to play the same role in female mice, as knockdown of either PICK1 or GRIP in the mPFC leads to similar increases in cue-induced cocaine seeking. These previous findings indicate that the role of PICK1 in the prefrontal cortex is sex specific. The goal of the current study was to examine whether ovarian hormones contribute to the effect of prefrontal PICK1 knockdown on reinstatement of cocaine seeking. While we replicated the increased cue-induced cocaine seeking in prefrontal PICK1 knockdown sham mice, we did not see any difference between the GFP control mice and PICK1 knockdowns following ovariectomy. However, this effect was driven primarily by an increase in cocaine seeking in ovariectomized GFP control mice while there was no effect ovariectomy in PICK1 knockdown mice. Taken together, these findings suggest that circulating ovarian hormones interact with the effects of PICK1 on cue-induced reinstatement.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Megan M Wickens
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Temple University, United States of America
| | - Julia M Kirkland
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Temple University, United States of America
| | - Melissa C Knouse
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Temple University, United States of America
| | - Anna G McGrath
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Temple University, United States of America
| | - Lisa A Briand
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Temple University, United States of America; Neuroscience Program, Temple University, United States of America.
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7
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Knouse MC, Deutschmann AU, Nenov MN, Wimmer ME, Briand LA. Sex differences in pre- and post-synaptic glutamate signaling in the nucleus accumbens core. Biol Sex Differ 2023; 14:52. [PMID: 37596655 PMCID: PMC10439632 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-023-00537-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glutamate signaling within the nucleus accumbens underlies motivated behavior and is involved in psychiatric disease. Although behavioral sex differences in these processes are well-established, the neural mechanisms driving these differences are largely unexplored. In these studies, we examine potential sex differences in synaptic plasticity and excitatory transmission within the nucleus accumbens core. Further understanding of baseline sex differences in reward circuitry will shed light on potential mechanisms driving behavioral differences in motivated behavior and psychiatric disease. METHODS Behaviorally naïve adult male and female Long-Evans rats, C57Bl/6J mice, and constitutive PKMζ knockout mice were killed and tissue containing the nucleus accumbens core was collected for ex vivo slice electrophysiology experiments. Electrophysiology recordings examined baseline sex differences in synaptic plasticity and transmission within this region and the potential role of PKMζ in long-term depression. RESULTS Within the nucleus accumbens core, both female mice and rats exhibit higher AMPA/NMDA ratios compared to male animals. Further, female mice have a larger readily releasable pool of glutamate and lower release probability compared to male mice. No significant sex differences were detected in spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic current amplitude or frequency. Finally, the threshold for induction of long-term depression was lower for male animals than females, an effect that appears to be mediated, in part, by PKMζ. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that there are baseline sex differences in synaptic plasticity and excitatory transmission in the nucleus accumbens core. Our data suggest there are sex differences at multiple levels in this region that should be considered in the development of pharmacotherapies to treat psychiatric illnesses such as depression and substance use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa C Knouse
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Weiss Hall, 1701 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Andre U Deutschmann
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Weiss Hall, 1701 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Miroslav N Nenov
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Weiss Hall, 1701 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Mathieu E Wimmer
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Weiss Hall, 1701 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Lisa A Briand
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Weiss Hall, 1701 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA.
- Neuroscience Program, Temple University, Weiss Hall, 1701 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA.
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8
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Luján MÁ, Oliver BL, Young-Morrison R, Engi SA, Zhang LY, Wenzel JM, Li Y, Zlebnik NE, Cheer JF. A multivariate regressor of patterned dopamine release predicts relapse to cocaine. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112553. [PMID: 37224011 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding mesolimbic dopamine adaptations underlying vulnerability to drug relapse is essential to inform prognostic tools for effective treatment strategies. However, technical limitations have hindered the direct measurement of sub-second dopamine release in vivo for prolonged periods of time, making it difficult to gauge the weight that these dopamine abnormalities have in determining future relapse incidence. Here, we use the fluorescent sensor GrabDA to record, with millisecond resolution, every single cocaine-evoked dopamine transient in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) of freely moving mice during self-administration. We reveal low-dimensional features of patterned dopamine release that are strong predictors of cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. Additionally, we report sex-specific differences in cocaine-related dopamine responses related to a greater resistance to extinction in males compared with females. These findings provide important insights into the sufficiency of NAc dopamine signaling dynamics-in interaction with sex-for recapitulating persistent cocaine seeking and future relapse vulnerability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Á Luján
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Brandon L Oliver
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, School of Medicine, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Reana Young-Morrison
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sheila A Engi
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Lan-Yuan Zhang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jennifer M Wenzel
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yulong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking University School of Life Sciences, Beijing, China; PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, China; Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Natalie E Zlebnik
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, School of Medicine, Riverside, CA, USA.
| | - Joseph F Cheer
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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9
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Towers EB, Williams IL, Qillawala EI, Rissman EF, Lynch WJ. Sex/Gender Differences in the Time-Course for the Development of Substance Use Disorder: A Focus on the Telescoping Effect. Pharmacol Rev 2023; 75:217-249. [PMID: 36781217 PMCID: PMC9969523 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.121.000361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex/gender effects have been demonstrated for multiple aspects of addiction, with one of the most commonly cited examples being the "telescoping effect" where women meet criteria and/or seek treatment of substance use disorder (SUD) after fewer years of drug use as compared with men. This phenomenon has been reported for multiple drug classes including opioids, psychostimulants, alcohol, and cannabis, as well as nonpharmacological addictions, such as gambling. However, there are some inconsistent reports that show either no difference between men and women or opposite effects and a faster course to addiction in men than women. Thus, the goals of this review are to evaluate evidence for and against the telescoping effect in women and to determine the conditions/populations for which the telescoping effect is most relevant. We also discuss evidence from preclinical studies, which strongly support the validity of the telescoping effect and show that female animals develop addiction-like features (e.g., compulsive drug use, an enhanced motivation for the drug, and enhanced drug-craving/vulnerability to relapse) more readily than male animals. We also discuss biologic factors that may contribute to the telescoping effect, such as ovarian hormones, and its neurobiological basis focusing on the mesolimbic dopamine reward pathway and the corticomesolimbic glutamatergic pathway considering the critical roles these pathways play in the rewarding/reinforcing effects of addictive drugs and SUD. We conclude with future research directions, including intervention strategies to prevent the development of SUD in women. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: One of the most widely cited gender/sex differences in substance use disorder (SUD) is the "telescoping effect," which reflects an accelerated course in women versus men for the development and/or seeking treatment for SUD. This review evaluates evidence for and against a telescoping effect drawing upon data from both clinical and preclinical studies. We also discuss the contribution of biological factors and underlying neurobiological mechanisms and highlight potential targets to prevent the development of SUD in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Blair Towers
- Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences (E.B.T., I.L.W., E.I.Q., W.J.L.) and Medical Scientist Training Program (E.B.T.), University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, and Center for Human Health and the Environment and Program in Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina (E.F.R.)
| | - Ivy L Williams
- Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences (E.B.T., I.L.W., E.I.Q., W.J.L.) and Medical Scientist Training Program (E.B.T.), University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, and Center for Human Health and the Environment and Program in Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina (E.F.R.)
| | - Emaan I Qillawala
- Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences (E.B.T., I.L.W., E.I.Q., W.J.L.) and Medical Scientist Training Program (E.B.T.), University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, and Center for Human Health and the Environment and Program in Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina (E.F.R.)
| | - Emilie F Rissman
- Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences (E.B.T., I.L.W., E.I.Q., W.J.L.) and Medical Scientist Training Program (E.B.T.), University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, and Center for Human Health and the Environment and Program in Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina (E.F.R.)
| | - Wendy J Lynch
- Psychiatry and Neurobehavioral Sciences (E.B.T., I.L.W., E.I.Q., W.J.L.) and Medical Scientist Training Program (E.B.T.), University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, and Center for Human Health and the Environment and Program in Genetics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina (E.F.R.)
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10
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Hammad AM, Naser A, Amawi H, Hall FS, Tiwari AK, Al-Trad B. Effect of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid in attenuating pregabalin-induced condition place preference. Behav Brain Res 2023; 439:114244. [PMID: 36470419 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Substance abuse is a worldwide problem with serious repercussions for patients and the communities where they live. Pregabalin (Lyrica), is a medication commonly used to treat neuropathic pain. Like other analgesic medications there has been concern about pregabalin abuse and misuse. Although it was initially suggested that pregabalin, like other gabapentinoids, has limited abuse liability, questions still remain concerning this inquiry. Changes in glutamate system homeostasis are a hallmark of adaptations underlying drug dependence, including down-regulation of the glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1; SLC1A2) and the cystine/glutamate antiporter (xCT; SLC7A11). In this study, it was found that pregabalin (90 mg/kg) produces a conditioned place preference (CPP), indicative of reinforcing effects that suggest a potential for abuse liability. Moreover, like other drugs of abuse, pregabalin also produced alterations in glutamate homeostasis, reducing the mRNA expression of Slc1a2 and Slc7a11 in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Amoxicillin clavulanic acid, a β-lactam antibiotic, blocked the reinforcing effects of pregabalin and normalized glutamate homeostasis. These results suggest that pregabalin has abuse potential that should be examined more critically, and that, moreover, the mechanisms underlying these effects are similar to those of other drugs of abuse, such as heroin and cocaine. Additionally, these results support previous findings showing normalization of glutamate homeostasis by β-lactam drugs that provides a novel potential therapeutic approach for the treatment of drug abuse and dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaa M Hammad
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan.
| | - Asma'a Naser
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, Jordan
| | - Haneen Amawi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, Jordan
| | - F Scott Hall
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Amit K Tiwari
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Bahaa Al-Trad
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Yarmouk University, Irbid 21163, Jordan
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11
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Wiah S, Roper A, Zhao P, Shekarabi A, Watson MN, Farkas DJ, Potula R, Reitz AB, Rawls SM. Troriluzole inhibits methamphetamine place preference in rats and normalizes methamphetamine-evoked glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) protein levels in the mesolimbic pathway. Drug Alcohol Depend 2023; 242:109719. [PMID: 36521236 PMCID: PMC9850846 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Riluzole, approved to manage amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, is mechanistically unique among glutamate-based therapeutics because it reduces glutamate transmission through a dual mechanism (i.e., reduces glutamate release and enhances glutamate reuptake). The profile of riluzole is favorable for normalizing glutamatergic dysregulation that perpetuates methamphetamine (METH) dependence, but pharmacokinetic and metabolic liabilities hinder repurposing. To mitigate these limitations, we synthesized troriluzole (TRLZ), a third-generation prodrug of riluzole, and tested the hypothesis that TRLZ inhibits METH hyperlocomotion and conditioned place preference (CPP) and normalizes METH-induced changes in mesolimbic glutamate biomarkers. TRLZ (8, 16 mg/kg) reduced hyperlocomotion caused by METH (1 mg/kg) without affecting spontaneous activity. TRLZ (1, 4, 8, 16 mg/kg) administered during METH conditioning (0.5 mg/kg x 4 d) inhibited development of METH place preference, and TRLZ (16 mg/kg) administered after METH conditioning reduced expression of CPP. In rats with established METH place preference, TRLZ (16 mg/kg) accelerated extinction of CPP. In cellular studies, chronic METH enhanced mRNA levels of glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and prefrontal cortex (PFC). Repeated METH also caused enhancement of GCPII protein levels in the VTA that was prevented by TRLZ (16 mg/kg). TRLZ (16 mg/kg) administered during chronic METH did not affect brain or plasma levels of METH. These results indicate that TRLZ, already in clinical trials for cerebellar ataxia, reduces development, expression and maintenance of METH CPP. Moreover, normalization of METH-induced GCPII levels in mesolimbic substrates by TRLZ points toward studying GCPII as a therapeutic target of TRLZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonita Wiah
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Abigail Roper
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, University of Massachusetts-Boston, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Pingwei Zhao
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Aryan Shekarabi
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Mia N Watson
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Daniel J Farkas
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Raghava Potula
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Allen B Reitz
- Fox Chase Chemical Diversity Center, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Scott M Rawls
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Neural Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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12
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Padovan-Hernandez Y, Rojas G, Wu L, Knackstedt LA. Individual differences in cocaine seeking during voluntary abstinence predicts cocaine relapse and the circuitry mediating relapse. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2022; 239:3963-3973. [PMID: 36329194 PMCID: PMC10240883 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-022-06270-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE There are no FDA-approved treatments to facilitate recovery from cocaine use disorder. Contingency management offers non-drug reinforcers to encourage abstinence and is effective at reducing drug seeking during treatment, but once discontinued, relapse rates increase. OBJECTIVES We sought to establish a choice-based rodent model of voluntary abstinence (VA) from cocaine to test the ability of ceftriaxone, an antibiotic consistently shown to prevent relapse to cocaine seeking in rodents, to attenuate relapse after discontinuation of VA, and to investigate relapse-induced neuronal activation via c-Fos expression. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats self-administered sucrose pellets for 5 days and intravenous cocaine for 12 days. Rats then underwent 14 days of voluntary or forced abstinence. VA sessions entailed the opportunity to choose between sucrose and cocaine delivery in discrete trials (20 trials/day). Ceftriaxone (or vehicle) was administered during the last 7 days of abstinence. During a relapse test, only the cocaine-paired lever was available and presses on the lever delivered cocaine-paired cues. RESULTS There were more presses on the sucrose lever during VA, but cocaine intake did not decline to zero. Ceftriaxone had no effect on cocaine intake during VA. Neither ceftriaxone nor VA reduced cocaine seeking during the relapse test, and cocaine intake during VA positively correlated with cocaine seeking during the test in vehicle-treated animals. Relapse-induced c-Fos expression was found to be greater in the ventral orbitofrontal cortex following VA. CONCLUSIONS Sucrose availability leads to a decrease in, but not cessation of, cocaine seeking and a differential engagement of the circuitry underlying relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmin Padovan-Hernandez
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Giselle Rojas
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Lizhen Wu
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Lori A Knackstedt
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
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13
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Hadizadeh H, Flores JM, Mayerson T, Worhunsky PD, Potenza MN, Angarita GA. Glutamatergic Agents for the Treatment of Cocaine Use Disorder. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40473-022-00252-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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14
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Panopoulou M, Schlüter OM. Ca 2+-permeable AMPA receptors set the threshold for retrieval of drug memories. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:2868-2878. [PMID: 35296806 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01505-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Frequent relapse prevents the successful treatment of substance use disorders and is triggered in part by retrieval of drug-associated memories. Drug-conditioned behaviours in rodents are reinstated upon drug memory retrieval following re-exposure to cues previously associated with the drug, or the drug itself. Therapies based on mechanistic insights from rodent studies have focused on amnesic procedures of cue-drug associations but with so far limited success. Conversely, more recent studies propose that inhibiting drug memory retrieval offers improved anti-relapse efficacy. However, mechanisms of memory retrieval are poorly understood. Here, we used a conditioned place preference (CPP) procedure in mice to investigate the cellular and molecular underpinnings of drug-induced memory retrieval. After extinction training of CPP, Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) accumulated at drug-generated silent synapses of nucleus accumbens (NAc) medium spiny neurons. The NAc CP-AMPARs regulated the retrieval mechanism of drug memories after extinction. Specifically, we used different priming doses of cocaine, fentanyl, or a cue associated with drug exposure to reinstate CPP, providing different memory retrieval conditions. Although both high and low doses of these two drugs induced CPP reinstatement, compromising CP-AMPAR accumulation impaired CPP reinstatement, induced by low doses of each drug or the cue. This threshold effect was mediated by NAc CP-AMPARs as region specific knock-down of PSD-95 prevented low-dose cocaine-induced retrieval selectively. These results demonstrate the NAc as a brain region and CP-AMPARs as key synaptic substrates that govern the threshold for drug-induced retrieval and behavioural expression of drug memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myrto Panopoulou
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center, D-37075, Göttingen, Germany.,International Max Planck Research School for Neurosciences, D-37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Oliver M Schlüter
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center, D-37075, Göttingen, Germany. .,Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA.
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15
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Strickland JC, Stoops WW, Banks ML, Gipson CD. Logical fallacies and misinterpretations that hinder progress in translational addiction neuroscience. J Exp Anal Behav 2022; 117:384-403. [PMID: 35362559 PMCID: PMC9090969 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Substance use disorders (SUDs) are heterogeneous and complex, making the development of translationally predictive rodent and nonhuman primate models to uncover their neurobehavioral underpinnings difficult. Neuroscience-focused outcomes have become highly prevalent, and with this, the notion that SUDs are disorders of the brain embraced as a dominant theoretical orientation to understand SUD etiology and treatment. These efforts, however, have led to few efficacious pharmacotherapies, and in some cases (as with cocaine or methamphetamine), no pharmacotherapies have translated from preclinical models for clinical use. In this theoretical commentary, we first describe the development of animal models of substance use behaviors from a historical perspective. We then define and discuss three logical fallacies including 1) circular explanation, 2) affirming the consequent, and 3) reification that can apply to developed models. We then provide three case examples in which conceptual or logical issues exist in common methods (i.e., behavioral economic demand, escalation, and reinstatement). Alternative strategies to refocus behavioral models are suggested for the field to better bridge the translational divide between animal models, the clinical condition of SUDs, and current and future regulatory pathways for intervention development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin C. Strickland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | | | - Matthew L. Banks
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University
| | - Cassandra D. Gipson
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington
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16
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Namba MD, Phillips MN, Neisewander JL, Olive MF. Nuclear factor kappa B signaling within the rat nucleus accumbens core sex-dependently regulates cue-induced cocaine seeking and matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression. Brain Behav Immun 2022; 102:252-265. [PMID: 35259426 PMCID: PMC9116481 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2022.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic drug self-administration and withdrawal are associated with distinct neuroimmune adaptations that may increase drug craving and relapse vulnerability in humans. The nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway is a critical regulator of many immune- and addiction-related genes such as the extracellular matrix enzyme matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), which is a known modulator of learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity. While some studies suggest striatal NF-κB signaling may regulate drug-conditioned behavior, no studies to date have examined whether NF-κB signaling within the nucleus accumbens core (NAc core) alters downstream neuroimmune function and cue-motivated cocaine seeking following a period of forced abstinence, whether any effects are specific to cocaine over other reinforcers, or whether sex differences exist. Here, we examined whether viral-mediated knockdown of the p65 subunit of NF-κB within the NAc core would alter MMP-9 expression and cue-induced cocaine- and sucrose-seeking behavior following a period of forced abstinence in male and female rats. We demonstrate that NAc core p65 knockdown results in a significant decrease in cue-induced cocaine seeking in males but not females. This effect was specific to cocaine, as p65 knockdown did not significantly affect cue-induced sucrose seeking in either males or females. Moreover, we demonstrate that males express higher levels of MMP-9 within the NAc core and nucleus accumbens shell (NAcSh) compared to females, and that p65 knockdown significantly decreases MMP-9 in the NAc core of males but not females among cocaine cue-exposed animals. Altogether, these results suggest that NAc core NF-κB signaling exerts modulatory control over cue-motivated drug-seeking behavior and downstream neuroimmune function in a sex-specific manner. These findings highlight the need to consider sex as an important biological variable when examining immunomodulatory mechanisms of cocaine seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Namba
- School of Life Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.
| | - Megan N Phillips
- School of Life Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | | | - M Foster Olive
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
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17
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Philogene-Khalid HL, Morrison MF, Darbinian N, Selzer ME, Schroeder J, Rawls SM. The GLT-1 enhancer clavulanic acid suppresses cocaine place preference behavior and reduces GCPII activity and protein levels in the rat nucleus accumbens. Drug Alcohol Depend 2022; 232:109306. [PMID: 35051699 PMCID: PMC8885893 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The β-lactam antibiotic ceftriaxone (CTX) is a glutamate transporter subtype 1 (GLT-1) enhancer that reduces cocaine reinforcing efficacy and relapse in rats, but pharmacokinetic liabilities limit translational utility. An attractive alternative is clavulanic acid (CLAV), a structurally related β-lactamase inhibitor and component of FDA-approved Augmentin. CLAV retains the GLT-1 enhancing effects of CTX but displays greater oral bioavailability, brain penetrability and negligible antibacterial activity. CLAV reduces morphine conditioned place preference (CPP) and ethanol consumption in rats, but knowledge about the efficacy of CLAV in preclinical models of drug addiction remains sparse. Here, we investigated effects of CLAV (10 mg/kg, IP) on the acquisition, expression, and maintenance of cocaine CPP in rats, and on two glutamate biomarkers associated with cocaine dependence, GLT-1 and glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII). CLAV administered during cocaine conditioning (10 mg/kg, IP x 4 d) did not affect the development of cocaine CPP. However, a single CLAV injection, administered after the conditioning phase, reduced the expression of cocaine CPP. In rats with established cocaine preference, repeated CLAV administration facilitated extinction of cocaine CPP. In the nucleus accumbens, acute CLAV exposure reduced GCPII protein levels and activity, and a 10-d CLAV treatment regimen enhanced GLT-1 levels. These results suggest that CLAV reduces expression and maintenance of cocaine CPP but lacks effect against development of CPP. Moreover, the ability of a single injection of CLAV to reduce both GCPII activity and protein levels, as well as expression of cocaine CPP, points toward studying GCPII as a therapeutic target of CLAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helene L. Philogene-Khalid
- Department of Neural Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Corresponding author at: Department of Psychiatry, Medical Arts Building Suite 305, Temple University, 100 East Lehigh Ave., Philadelphia, PA 19125-1012, United States.
| | - Mary F. Morrison
- Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Nune Darbinian
- Department of Neural Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation (Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center), Department of Neurology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Michael E. Selzer
- Department of Neural Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Neural Repair and Rehabilitation (Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center), Department of Neurology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Joseph Schroeder
- Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Connecticut College, New London, CT, USA
| | - Scott M. Rawls
- Department of Neural Sciences, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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18
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Peart DR, Andrade AK, Logan CN, Knackstedt LA, Murray JE. Regulation of Cocaine-related Behaviors by Estrogen and Progesterone. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 135:104584. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 01/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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19
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Logan CN, Rojas G, Wilkinson CS, Polo Escorcia AK, Reichel CM, Peris J, Knackstedt LA. Systemic oxytocin increases glutamate efflux in the nucleus accumbens core of cocaine-experienced male and female rats but only increases dopamine efflux in males. Behav Brain Res 2022; 417:113590. [PMID: 34551348 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Oxytocin attenuates cocaine-seeking when administered both systemically and directly into the nucleus accumbens core. This effect is blocked by intra-accumbens antagonism of mGlu2/3 and, together with our finding that intra-accumbens oxytocin increases glutamate concentrations in this brain region, indicates that pre-synaptic regulation of glutamate release by oxytocin influences cocaine relapse. However, mGlu2/3 receptors also regulate dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Here we aimed to determine whether systemic oxytocin increases glutamate and dopamine concentrations in the nucleus accumbens core of cocaine-experienced and cocaine-naïve male and female rats. A subset of rats self-administered cocaine (0.5 mg/kg/infusion) and then underwent extinction training for 2-3 weeks. Rats were implanted with microdialysis probes in the accumbens core and samples were collected for a baseline period, and following saline (1 mL/kg), and oxytocin (1 mg/kg, IP) injections. Locomotion was assessed during microdialysis. In cocaine-experienced rats, oxytocin increased glutamate concentrations in the accumbens core to the same extent in males and females but only increased dopamine concentrations in male rats. Oxytocin did not alter glutamate levels in cocaine-naïve rats. Oxytocin did not produce sedation. These results extend previous findings that systemic oxytocin increases nucleus accumbens dopamine in a sex-specific manner in cocaine-experienced rats. These data are the first to find that systemic oxytocin increases nucleus accumbens glutamate after cocaine experience, providing a mechanism of action by which oxytocin attenuates the reinstatement of cocaine seeking in both male and female rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- C N Logan
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
| | - G Rojas
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - C S Wilkinson
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | - C M Reichel
- Neuroscience Dept., Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston SC, USA
| | - J Peris
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Pharmacodynamics Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - L A Knackstedt
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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20
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Nicolas C, Zlebnik NE, Farokhnia M, Leggio L, Ikemoto S, Shaham Y. Sex Differences in Opioid and Psychostimulant Craving and Relapse: A Critical Review. Pharmacol Rev 2022; 74:119-140. [PMID: 34987089 PMCID: PMC11060335 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.121.000367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
A widely held dogma in the preclinical addiction field is that females are more vulnerable than males to drug craving and relapse. Here, we first review clinical studies on sex differences in psychostimulant and opioid craving and relapse. Next, we review preclinical studies on sex differences in psychostimulant and opioid reinstatement of drug seeking after extinction of drug self-administration, and incubation of drug craving (time-dependent increase in drug seeking during abstinence). We also discuss ovarian hormones' role in relapse and craving in humans and animal models and speculate on brain mechanisms underlying their role in cocaine craving and relapse in rodent models. Finally, we discuss imaging studies on brain responses to cocaine cues and stress in men and women.The results of the clinical studies reviewed do not appear to support the notion that women are more vulnerable to psychostimulant and opioid craving and relapse. However, this conclusion is tentative because most of the studies reviewed were correlational, not sufficiently powered, and not a priori designed to detect sex differences. Additionally, imaging studies suggest sex differences in brain responses to cocaine cues and stress. The results of the preclinical studies reviewed provide evidence for sex differences in stress-induced reinstatement and incubation of cocaine craving but not cue- or cocaine-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. These sex differences are modulated in part by ovarian hormones. In contrast, the available data do not support the notion of sex differences in craving and relapse/reinstatement for methamphetamine or opioids in rodent models. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This systematic review summarizes clinical and preclinical studies on sex differences in psychostimulant and opioid craving and relapse. Results of the clinical studies reviewed do not appear to support the notion that women are more vulnerable to psychostimulant and opioid craving and relapse. Results of preclinical studies reviewed provide evidence for sex differences in reinstatement and incubation of cocaine seeking but not for reinstatement or incubation of methamphetamine or opioid seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Nicolas
- Neurocentre Magendie, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France (C.N.); Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, Present address: Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, School of Medicine, Riverside, CA (N.E.Z.); Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD (M.F., L.L., S.I., Y.S.); and Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (M.F., L.L.)
| | - Natalie E Zlebnik
- Neurocentre Magendie, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France (C.N.); Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, Present address: Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, School of Medicine, Riverside, CA (N.E.Z.); Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD (M.F., L.L., S.I., Y.S.); and Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (M.F., L.L.)
| | - Mehdi Farokhnia
- Neurocentre Magendie, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France (C.N.); Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, Present address: Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, School of Medicine, Riverside, CA (N.E.Z.); Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD (M.F., L.L., S.I., Y.S.); and Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (M.F., L.L.)
| | - Lorenzo Leggio
- Neurocentre Magendie, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France (C.N.); Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, Present address: Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, School of Medicine, Riverside, CA (N.E.Z.); Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD (M.F., L.L., S.I., Y.S.); and Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (M.F., L.L.)
| | - Satoshi Ikemoto
- Neurocentre Magendie, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France (C.N.); Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, Present address: Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, School of Medicine, Riverside, CA (N.E.Z.); Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD (M.F., L.L., S.I., Y.S.); and Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (M.F., L.L.)
| | - Yavin Shaham
- Neurocentre Magendie, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France (C.N.); Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, Present address: Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, School of Medicine, Riverside, CA (N.E.Z.); Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD (M.F., L.L., S.I., Y.S.); and Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD (M.F., L.L.)
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21
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Frye HE, Izumi Y, Harris AN, Williams SB, Trousdale CR, Sun MY, Sauerbeck AD, Kummer TT, Mennerick S, Zorumski CF, Nelson EC, Dougherty JD, Morón JA. Sex Differences in the Role of CNIH3 on Spatial Memory and Synaptic Plasticity. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 90:766-780. [PMID: 34548146 PMCID: PMC8571071 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CNIH3 is an AMPA receptor (AMPAR) auxiliary protein prominently expressed in the dorsal hippocampus (dHPC), a region that plays a critical role in spatial memory and synaptic plasticity. However, the effects of CNIH3 on AMPAR-dependent synaptic function and behavior have not been investigated. METHODS We assessed a gain-of-function model of Cnih3 overexpression in the dHPC and generated and characterized a line of Cnih3-/- C57BL/6 mice. We assessed spatial memory through behavioral assays, protein levels of AMPAR subunits and synaptic proteins by immunoblotting, and long-term potentiation in electrophysiological recordings. We also utilized a super-resolution imaging workflow, SEQUIN (Synaptic Evaluation and Quantification by Imaging of Nanostructure), for analysis of nanoscale synaptic connectivity in the dHPC. RESULTS Overexpression of Cnih3 in the dHPC improved short-term spatial memory in female mice but not in male mice. Cnih3-/- female mice exhibited weakened short-term spatial memory, reduced dHPC synapse density, enhanced expression of calcium-impermeable AMPAR (GluA2-containing) subunits in synaptosomes, and attenuated long-term potentiation maintenance compared with Cnih3+/+ control mice; Cnih3-/- males were unaffected. Further investigation revealed that deficiencies in spatial memory and changes in AMPAR composition and synaptic plasticity were most pronounced during the metestrus phase of the estrous cycle in female Cnih3-/- mice. CONCLUSIONS This study identified a novel effect of sex and estrous on CNIH3's role in spatial memory and synaptic plasticity. Manipulation of CNIH3 unmasked sexually dimorphic effects on spatial memory, synaptic function, AMPAR composition, and hippocampal plasticity. These findings reinforce the importance of considering sex as a biological variable in studies of memory and hippocampal synaptic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Frye
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Program in Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Yukitoshi Izumi
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Alexis N Harris
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Sidney B Williams
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Christopher R Trousdale
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Min-Yu Sun
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Andrew D Sauerbeck
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Terrance T Kummer
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Steven Mennerick
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Charles F Zorumski
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Elliot C Nelson
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Joseph D Dougherty
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Jose A Morón
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri.
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22
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Arunogiri S, Crossin R, Rizzo D, Walker L, Ridley K, Gurvich C. A systematic review of the effect of ovarian sex hormones on stimulant use in females. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e13079. [PMID: 34374475 DOI: 10.1111/adb.13079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Stimulant use disorder is associated with significant global health burden. Despite evidence for sex differences in the development and maintenance of stimulant use disorder, few studies have focused on mechanisms underpinning distinct trajectories in females versus males, including the effect of the ovarian sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. This review aimed to identify and synthesise the existing preclinical and clinical literature on the effect of ovarian sex hormones on stimulant consumption in females. A systematic search of peer-reviewed literature identified 1593 articles, screened using the following inclusion criteria: (1) adult female humans or animals, (2) using stimulant drugs, (3) ovarian sex hormones were administered exogenously OR were measured in a validated manner and (4) with stimulant consumption as an outcome measure. A total of 50 studies (3 clinical and 47 preclinical) met inclusion criteria. High-estrogen (low progesterone) phases of the menstrual/estrus cycle were associated with increased stimulant use in preclinical studies, while there were no clinical studies examining estrogen and stimulant consumption. Consistent preclinical evidence supported progesterone use reducing stimulant consumption, which was also identified in one clinical study. The review was limited by inconsistent data reporting across studies and different protocols across preclinical laboratory paradigms. Importantly, almost all studies examined cocaine use, with impact on methamphetamine use a significant gap in the existing evidence. Given the safety and tolerability profile of progesterone, further research is urgently needed to address this gap, to explore the potential therapeutic utility of progesterone as a treatment for stimulant use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalini Arunogiri
- Monash Addiction Research Centre and Eastern Health Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences Monash University Richmond Victoria Australia
- Monash Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre, Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences Monash University and the Alfred Hospital Melbourne Victoria Australia
- Turning Point, Eastern Health Richmond Victoria Australia
| | - Rose Crossin
- Department of Population Health University of Otago Christchurch New Zealand
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Davinia Rizzo
- Monash Addiction Research Centre and Eastern Health Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences Monash University Richmond Victoria Australia
- Turning Point, Eastern Health Richmond Victoria Australia
| | - Leigh Walker
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Kelly Ridley
- West Australian Country Health Service Albany Western Australia Australia
| | - Caroline Gurvich
- Monash Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre, Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences Monash University and the Alfred Hospital Melbourne Victoria Australia
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23
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Wickens MM, Kirkland JM, Knouse MC, McGrath AG, Briand LA. Sex-specific role for prefrontal cortical protein interacting with C kinase 1 in cue-induced cocaine seeking. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e13051. [PMID: 34110073 DOI: 10.1111/adb.13051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Disruption of prefrontal glutamate receptor interacting protein (GRIP), which anchors GluA2-containing AMPA receptors (AMPARs) into the synaptic membrane, potentiates cue-induced cocaine seeking in both males and females. Protein interacting with C kinase 1 (PICK1) plays an opposing role to that of GRIP, removing AMPARs from the synapse. Consistent with our hypothesis that disruption of PICK1 in the mPFC would lead to a decrease in addiction-like behaviour, we found that conditional deletion of PICK1 in the mPFC attenuates cue-induced cocaine seeking in male mice. However, prefrontal PICK1 deletion had the opposite effect in females, leading to an increase in cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. We did not see any effects of PICK1 knockdown on sucrose taking or seeking, suggesting the sex-specific effects do not generalise to natural reinforcers. These findings suggest the role of PICK1 in the prefrontal cortex of females may not be consistent with its accepted role in males. To determine whether these sex differences were influenced by gonadal hormones, we gonadectomised a cohort of males and found that removal of circulating androgens eliminated the effect of prefrontal PICK1 knockdown. As there was no effect of gonadectomy on its own on any of the behavioural measures collected, our results suggest that androgens may be involved in compensatory downstream effects of PICK1 knockdown. Taken together, these results highlight the need for consideration of sex as a biological variable when examining mechanisms underlying all behaviours, as convergent sex differences can reveal different mechanisms where behavioural sex differences do not exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan M. Wickens
- Department of Psychology Temple University Philadelphia Pennsylvania USA
| | - Julia M. Kirkland
- Department of Psychology Temple University Philadelphia Pennsylvania USA
| | - Melissa C. Knouse
- Department of Psychology Temple University Philadelphia Pennsylvania USA
| | - Anna G. McGrath
- Department of Psychology Temple University Philadelphia Pennsylvania USA
| | - Lisa A. Briand
- Department of Psychology Temple University Philadelphia Pennsylvania USA
- Neuroscience Program Temple University Philadelphia Pennsylvania USA
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24
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Knouse MC, Briand LA. Behavioral sex differences in cocaine and opioid use disorders: The role of gonadal hormones. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 128:358-366. [PMID: 34214512 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Females are more vulnerable than males to many aspects of cocaine use disorder. This vulnerability also translates to opioid use disorder, with females exhibiting stronger behavioral responses than males to drugs such as heroin and morphine. While there is evidence for many overlapping neural mechanisms underlying cocaine and opioid abuse, there is also a breadth of evidence indicating divergent effects of the drugs on synaptic plasticity. This makes it unclear whether the behavioral sex differences seen in substance use disorder across different drugs of abuse rely on the same mechanisms. Ovarian hormones have consistently been implicated as drivers of the behavioral sex differences in cocaine taking and seeking. While there are far fewer studies on the role of ovarian hormones in opioid use disorder, the existing data suggest that ovarian hormones may not drive these behavioral effects in the same manner as in cocaine use disorder. This review highlights evidence that behavioral sex differences in substance use disorder might be driven by different mechanisms depending on drug class.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lisa A Briand
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, United States; Neuroscience Program, Temple University, United States.
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25
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Schwendt M, Knackstedt LA. Extinction vs. Abstinence: A Review of the Molecular and Circuit Consequences of Different Post-Cocaine Experiences. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22116113. [PMID: 34204090 PMCID: PMC8200945 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22116113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The intravenous cocaine self-administration model is widely used to characterize the neurobiology of cocaine seeking. When studies are aimed at understanding relapse to cocaine-seeking, a post-cocaine abstinence period is imposed, followed by “relapse” tests to assess the ability of drug-related stimuli (“primes”) to evoke the resumption of the instrumental response previously made to obtain cocaine. Here, we review the literature on the impact of post-cocaine abstinence procedures on neurobiology, finding that the prelimbic and infralimbic regions of the prefrontal cortex are recruited by extinction training, and are not part of the relapse circuitry when extinction training does not occur. Pairing cocaine infusions with discrete cues recruits the involvement of the NA, which together with the dorsal striatum, is a key part of the relapse circuit regardless of abstinence procedures. Differences in molecular adaptations in the NA core include increased expression of GluN1 and glutamate receptor signaling partners after extinction training. AMPA receptors and glutamate transporters are similarly affected by abstinence and extinction. Glutamate receptor antagonists show efficacy at reducing relapse following extinction and abstinence, with a modest increase in efficacy of compounds that restore glutamate homeostasis after extinction training. Imaging studies in humans reveal cocaine-induced adaptations that are similar to those produced after extinction training. Thus, while instrumental extinction training does not have face validity, its use does not produce adaptations distinct from human cocaine users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Schwendt
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA;
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Lori A. Knackstedt
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA;
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-352-273-2185
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26
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NMDA Receptors in Accumbal D1 Neurons Influence Chronic Sugar Consumption and Relapse. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0029-21.2021. [PMID: 33906970 PMCID: PMC8143023 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0029-21.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutamatergic input via NMDA and AMPA receptors within the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway plays a critical role in the development of addictive behavior and relapse toward drugs of abuse. Although well-established for drugs of abuse, it is not clear whether glutamate receptors within the mesolimbic system are involved in mediating chronic consumption and relapse following abstinence from a non-drug reward. Here, we evaluated the contribution of mesolimbic glutamate receptors in mediating chronic sugar consumption and the sugar-deprivation effect (SDE), which is used as a measure of relapse-like behavior following abstinence. We studied four inducible mutant mouse lines lacking the GluA1 or GluN1 subunit in either DA transporter (DAT) or D1R-expressing neurons in an automated monitoring system for free-choice sugar drinking in the home cage. Mice lacking either GluA1 or GluN1 in D1R-expressing neurons (GluA1D1CreERT2 or GluN1D1CreERT2mice) have altered sugar consumption in both sexes, whereas GluA1DATCreERT2 and GluN1DATCreERT2do not differ from their respective littermate controls. In terms of relapse-like behavior, female GluN1D1CreERT2mice show a more pronounced SDE. Given that glutamate receptors within the mesolimbic system play a critical role in mediating relapse behavior of alcohol and other drugs of abuse, it is surprising that these receptors do not mediate the SDE, or in the case of female GluN1D1CreERT2 mice, show an opposing effect. We conclude that a relapse-like phenotype of sugar consumption differs from that of drugs of abuse on the molecular level, at least with respect to the contribution of mesolimbic glutamate receptors.
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27
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Knackstedt LA, Wu L, Rothstein JD, Vidensky S, Gordon J, Ramanjulu M, Dunman P, Blass B, Childers W, Abou-Gharbia M. MC-100093, a novel β-lactam GLT-1 enhancer devoid of antimicrobial properties attenuates cocaine relapse in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2021; 378:51-59. [PMID: 33986035 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.121.000532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cocaine use disorder (CUD) currently lacks FDA-approved treatments. In rodents, the glutamate transporter-1 (GLT-1) is downregulated in the nucleus accumbens following cocaine self-administration and increasing the expression and function of GLT-1 reduces the reinstatement of cocaine-seeking. The beta-lactam antibiotic ceftriaxone upregulates GLT-1 and attenuates cue- and cocaine-induced cocaine seeking without affecting motivation for natural rewards. While ceftriaxone shows promise for treating CUD, it possesses characteristics that limit successful translation from bench to bedside, including poor brain penetration, a lack of oral bioavailability and a risk of bacterial resistance when used chronically. Thus, we aimed to develop novel molecules that retained the GLT-1 enhancing effects of ceftriaxone but displayed superior drug-like properties. Here we describe a new monocyclic beta-lactam, MC-100093, as a potent up-regulator of GLT-1 that is orally bioavailable and devoid of antimicrobial properties. MC-100093 was synthesized and tested in vitro and in vivo to determine physiochemical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Next, adult male rats underwent cocaine self-administration and extinction training. During extinction training, rats received one of four doses of MC-100093 for 6-8 days prior to a single cue-primed reinstatement test. Separate cohorts of rats were used to assess nucleus accumbens GLT-1 expression and MC-100093 effects on sucrose self-administration. We found that 50 mg/kg MC-100093 attenuated cue-primed reinstatement of cocaine-seeking while upregulating GLT-1 expression in the nucleus accumbens core. This dose did not produce sedation, nor did it decrease sucrose consumption or body weight. Thus, MC-100093 represents a potential treatment to reduce cocaine relapse. Significance Statement Increasing GLT-1 activity reliably reduces drug-seeking across classes of drugs, however, existing GLT1-enhancers have side effects and lack oral bioavailability. To address this issue, novel GLT-1 enhancers were synthesized and the compound with the most favorable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, MC-100093, was selected for further testing. MC-100093 attenuated cued cocaine-seeking without reducing food-seeking or locomotion and upregulated GLT-1 expression in the nucleus accumbens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lizhen Wu
- Psychology, University of Florida, United States
| | | | | | - John Gordon
- School of Pharmacy, Temple University, United States
| | | | - Paul Dunman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, United States
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28
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Cocaine use disorder: A look at metabotropic glutamate receptors and glutamate transporters. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 221:107797. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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29
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Angoa-Pérez M, Kuhn DM. Evidence for Modulation of Substance Use Disorders by the Gut Microbiome: Hidden in Plain Sight. Pharmacol Rev 2021; 73:571-596. [PMID: 33597276 PMCID: PMC7896134 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.120.000144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiome modulates neurochemical function and behavior and has been implicated in numerous central nervous system (CNS) diseases, including developmental, neurodegenerative, and psychiatric disorders. Substance use disorders (SUDs) remain a serious threat to the public well-being, yet gut microbiome involvement in drug abuse has received very little attention. Studies of the mechanisms underlying SUDs have naturally focused on CNS reward circuits. However, a significant body of research has accumulated over the past decade that has unwittingly provided strong support for gut microbiome participation in drug reward. β-Lactam antibiotics have been employed to increase glutamate transporter expression to reverse relapse-induced release of glutamate. Sodium butyrate has been used as a histone deacetylase inhibitor to prevent drug-induced epigenetic alterations. High-fat diets have been used to alter drug reward because of the extensive overlap of the circuitry mediating them. This review article casts these approaches in a different light and makes a compelling case for gut microbiome modulation of SUDs. Few factors alter the structure and composition of the gut microbiome more than antibiotics and a high-fat diet, and butyrate is an endogenous product of bacterial fermentation. Drugs such as cocaine, alcohol, opiates, and psychostimulants also modify the gut microbiome. Therefore, their effects must be viewed on a complex background of cotreatment-induced dysbiosis. Consideration of the gut microbiome in SUDs should have the beneficial effects of expanding the understanding of SUDs and aiding in the design of new therapies based on opposing the effects of abused drugs on the host's commensal bacterial community. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Proposed mechanisms underlying substance use disorders fail to acknowledge the impact of drugs of abuse on the gut microbiome. β-Lactam antibiotics, sodium butyrate, and high-fat diets are used to modify drug seeking and reward, overlooking the notable capacity of these treatments to alter the gut microbiome. This review aims to stimulate research on substance abuse-gut microbiome interactions by illustrating how drugs of abuse share with antibiotics, sodium butyrate, and fat-laden diets the ability to modify the host microbial community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Angoa-Pérez
- Research and Development Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Donald M Kuhn
- Research and Development Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
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30
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Bechard AR, Logan CN, Mesa J, Padovan-Hernandez Y, Blount H, Hodges VL, Knackstedt LA. Role of prefrontal cortex projections to the nucleus accumbens core in mediating the effects of ceftriaxone on cue-induced cocaine seeking. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e12928. [PMID: 32558119 PMCID: PMC7746580 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2020] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Ceftriaxone is an antibiotic that reliably attenuates the reinstatement of cocaine seeking after extinction while preventing the nucleus accumbens (NA) core glutamate efflux that drives reinstatement. However, when rats undergo abstinence without extinction, ceftriaxone attenuates context-primed cocaine seeking but NA core glutamate efflux still increases. Here, we sought to determine if the same would occur when cocaine seeking is prompted by both context and discrete cues (cue-induced seeking) after cocaine abstinence. Male rats self-administered intravenous cocaine accompanied by drug-associated cues (light + tone) for 2 h/day for 14 days. Rats then experienced abstinence with daily handling but no extinction training for 2 weeks. Ceftriaxone (200 mg/kg IP) or vehicle was administered during the last 6 days of abstinence. During a cue-induced cocaine seeking test, microdialysis procedures were conducted. Rats were perfused at the end of the test for later Fos analysis. A separate cohort of rats was infused with the retrograde tracer cholera toxin B in the NA core and underwent the same self-administration and relapse procedures. Ceftriaxone increased baseline glutamate and attenuated both cue-induced cocaine seeking and NA core glutamate efflux during this test. Ceftriaxone reduced Fos expression in regions sending projections to the NA core (prefrontal cortex, basolateral amygdala, ventral tegmental area) and specifically reduced Fos in prelimbic cortex and not infralimbic cortex neurons projecting to the NA core. Thus, when cocaine seeking is induced by drug-associated cues, ceftriaxone is able to attenuate relapse by preventing NA core glutamate efflux, likely through reducing activity in prelimbic NA core-projecting neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carly N. Logan
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - Javier Mesa
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - Yasmin Padovan-Hernandez
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - Harrison Blount
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | | | - Lori A. Knackstedt
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
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31
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Israel Y, Quintanilla ME, Ezquer F, Morales P, Santapau D, Berríos‐Cárcamo P, Ezquer M, Olivares B, Herrera‐Marschitz M. Aspirin and N-acetylcysteine co-administration markedly inhibit chronic ethanol intake and block relapse binge drinking: Role of neuroinflammation-oxidative stress self-perpetuation. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e12853. [PMID: 31733014 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Chronic alcohol intake leads to neuroinflammation and cell injury, proposed to result in alterations that perpetuate alcohol intake and cued relapse. Studies show that brain oxidative stress is consistently associated with alcohol-induced neuroinflammation, and literature implies that oxidative stress and neuroinflammation perpetuate each other. In line with a self-perpetuating mechanism, it is hypothesized that inhibition of either oxidative stress or neuroinflammation could reduce chronic alcohol intake and relapse. The present study conducted on alcohol-preferring rats shows that chronic ethanol intake was inhibited by 50% to 55% by the oral administration of low doses of either the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (40 mg/kg/d) or the anti-inflammatory aspirin (ASA; 15 mg/kg/d), while the co-administration of both dugs led to a 70% to 75% (P < .001) inhibition of chronic alcohol intake. Following chronic alcohol intake, a prolonged alcohol deprivation, and subsequent alcohol re-access, relapse drinking resulted in blood alcohol levels of 95 to 100 mg/dL in 60 minutes, which were reduced by 60% by either N-acetylcysteine or aspirin and by 85% by the co-administration of both drugs (blood alcohol: 10 to 15 mg/dL; P < .001). Alcohol intake either on the chronic phase or following deprivation and re-access led to a 50% reduction of cortical glutamate transporter GLT-1 levels, while aspirin administration fully returned GLT-1 to normal levels. N-acetylcysteine administration did not alter GLT-1 levels, while N-acetylcysteine may activate the cystine/glutamate transport xCT, presynaptically inhibiting relapse. Overall, the study suggests that a neuroinflammation/oxidative stress self-perpetuation cycle maintains chronic alcohol intake and relapse drinking. The co-administration of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agents may have translational value in alcohol-use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yedy Israel
- Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine University of Chile Santiago Chile
| | - María Elena Quintanilla
- Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine University of Chile Santiago Chile
| | - Fernando Ezquer
- Centro de Medicina Regenerativa, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Desarrollo Santiago Chile
| | - Paola Morales
- Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine University of Chile Santiago Chile
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine University of Chile Santiago Chile
| | - Daniela Santapau
- Centro de Medicina Regenerativa, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Desarrollo Santiago Chile
| | - Pablo Berríos‐Cárcamo
- Centro de Medicina Regenerativa, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Desarrollo Santiago Chile
| | - Marcelo Ezquer
- Centro de Medicina Regenerativa, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Desarrollo Santiago Chile
| | - Belen Olivares
- Centro de Química Médica, Facultad de Medicina Clínica Alemana, Universidad del Desarrollo Santiago Chile
| | - Mario Herrera‐Marschitz
- Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine University of Chile Santiago Chile
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32
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Kantak KM, Gauthier JM, Mathieson E, Knyazhanskaya E, Rodriguez-Echemendia P, Man HY. Sex differences in the effects of a combined behavioral and pharmacological treatment strategy for cocaine relapse prevention in an animal model of cue exposure therapy. Behav Brain Res 2020; 395:112839. [PMID: 32750464 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Brief interventions of environmental enrichment (EE) or the glycine transporter-1 inhibitor Org24598 administered with cocaine-cue extinction training were shown previously to inhibit reacquisition of cocaine self-administration in male rats trained to self-administer a moderate 0.3 mg/kg dose of cocaine. Determining how EE and Org24598 synergize in combination in an animal model of cue exposure therapy is novel. Important changes made in this investigation were increasing the cocaine training dose to 1.0 mg/kg and determining sex differences. Adult male and female rats self-administering 1.0 mg/kg cocaine for 35-40 daily sessions exhibited an addiction-like phenotype under a second-order schedule of cocaine delivery and cue presentation. Rats next underwent 6 weekly extinction training sessions for which treatments consisted of EE or NoEE and Vehicle or Org24598 (3.0 mg/kg in males; 3.0 or 7.5 mg/kg in females). Rats then were tested for reacquisition of cocaine self-administration for 15 daily sessions. In males, the combined EE +3.0 mg/kg Org24598 treatment facilitated extinction learning and inhibited reacquisition of cocaine self-administration to a greater extent than no treatment and to individual EE or 3.0 mg/kg Org24598 treatments. In females, EE +7.5 mg/kg Org24598 facilitated extinction learning, but did not inhibit reacquisition of cocaine self-administration. Thus, there were sex differences in the ability of EE + Org24598 administered in conjunction with extinction training to inhibit cocaine relapse in rats exhibiting an addiction-like phenotype. These findings suggest that this multimodal treatment approach might be a feasible option during cue exposure therapy in cocaine-dependent men, but not women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Kantak
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, USA; Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, USA.
| | - Jamie M Gauthier
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, USA
| | - Elon Mathieson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, USA
| | | | | | - Heng-Ye Man
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, USA; Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, USA
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33
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Stennett BA, Knackstedt LA. A Rat Model of Cocaine-Alcohol Polysubstance Use Reveals Altered Cocaine Seeking and Glutamate Levels in the Nucleus Accumbens. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:877. [PMID: 32982672 PMCID: PMC7488193 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Preclinical models of cocaine use disorder are widely utilized to identify neuroadaptations underlying cocaine seeking and to screen medications to reduce seeking. However, while the majority of cocaine users engage in poly-substance use (PSU), a minority of preclinical studies employ PSU models. We previously reported that when rats consume alcohol after daily intravenous cocaine self-administration, nucleus accumbens (NA) core basal glutamate levels are reduced below those of rats that consumed only cocaine, and do not increase during cue + cocaine-primed reinstatement of cocaine-seeking. Here we used the same model of sequential cocaine and alcohol self-administration to test the hypothesis that a similar pattern of glutamate changes would be observed in the NA core prior to and during a cocaine-primed reinstatement test. Rats underwent intravenous cocaine self-administration followed by access to unsweetened alcohol in the home cage for 12 days. Rats underwent a minimum of 12 daily extinction sessions prior to a cocaine-primed reinstatement test conducted during microdialysis procedures. Contrary to our previous work using the same model, here we found that access to alcohol increased cocaine intake and increased responding during early extinction training. We found that as in our previous work, cocaine + alcohol-consuming rats displayed basal glutamate levels below those of rats that self-administered only cocaine. During the cocaine-primed reinstatement test, rats that consumed only cocaine displayed increased glutamate efflux in the NA core while those that consumed cocaine + alcohol did not. These results indicate that preclinical models of PSU should be utilized to develop experimental therapeutics for the reduction of cocaine seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany A. Stennett
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Center for Addiction Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Lori A. Knackstedt
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Center for Addiction Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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Abstract
The pervasive and devastating nature of substance use disorders underlies the need for the continued development of novel pharmacotherapies. We now know that glia play a much greater role in neuronal processes than once believed. The various types of glial cells (e.g., astrocytes, microglial, oligodendrocytes) participate in numerous functions that are crucial to healthy central nervous system function. Drugs of abuse have been shown to interact with glia in ways that directly contribute to the pharmacodynamic effects responsible for their abuse potential. Through their effect upon glia, drugs of abuse also alter brain function resulting in behavioral changes associated with substance use disorders. Therefore, drug-induced changes in glia and inflammation within the central nervous system (neuroinflammation) have been investigated to treat various aspects of drug abuse and dependence. This article presents a brief overview of the effects of each of the major classes of addictive drugs on glia. Next, the paper reviews the pre-clinical and clinical studies assessing the effects that glial modulators have on abuse-related behavioral effects, such as pleasure, withdrawal, and motivation. There is a strong body of pre-clinical literature demonstrating the general effectiveness of several glia-modulating drugs in models of reward and relapse. Clinical studies have also yielded promising results, though not as robust. There is still much to disentangle regarding the integration between addictive drugs and glial cells. Improved understanding of the relationship between glia and the pathophysiology of drug abuse should allow for more precise exploration in the development and testing of glial-directed treatments for substance use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jermaine D. Jones
- Division on Substance Use Disorders, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Logan CN, Bechard AR, Hamor PU, Wu L, Schwendt M, Knackstedt LA. Ceftriaxone and mGlu2/3 interactions in the nucleus accumbens core affect the reinstatement of cocaine-seeking in male and female rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:2007-2018. [PMID: 32382781 PMCID: PMC8587483 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05514-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The beta-lactam antibiotic ceftriaxone reliably attenuates the reinstatement of cocaine seeking. While the restoration of nucleus accumbens core (NA core) GLT-1 expression is necessary for ceftriaxone to attenuate reinstatement, AAV-mediated GLT-1 overexpression is not sufficient to attenuate reinstatement and does not prevent glutamate efflux during reinstatement. AIMS Here, we test the hypothesis that ceftriaxone attenuates reinstatement through interactions with glutamate autoreceptors mGlu2 and mGlu3 in the NA core. METHODS Male and female rats self-administered cocaine for 12 days followed by 2-3 weeks of extinction training. During the last 6-10 days of extinction, rats received ceftriaxone (200 mg/kg IP) or vehicle. In experiment 1, rats were killed, and NA core tissue was biotinylated for assessment of total and surface expression of mGlu2 and mGlu3 via western blotting. In experiment 2, we tested the hypothesis that mGlu2/3 signaling is necessary for ceftriaxone to attenuate cue- and cocaine-primed reinstatement by administering bilateral intra-NA core infusion of mGlu2/3 antagonist LY341495 or vehicle immediately prior to reinstatement testing. RESULTS mGlu2 expression was reduced by cocaine and restored by ceftriaxone. There were no effects of cocaine or ceftriaxone on mGlu3 expression. We observed no effects of estrus on expression of either protein. The antagonism of mGlu2/3 in the NA core during both cue- and cocaine-primed reinstatement tests prevented ceftriaxone from attenuating reinstatement. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that ceftriaxone's effects depend on mGlu2/3 function and possibly mGlu2 receptor expression. Future work will test this hypothesis by manipulating mGlu2 expression in pathways that project to the NA core.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carly N Logan
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Allison R Bechard
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA
| | - Peter U Hamor
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lizhen Wu
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA
| | - Marek Schwendt
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lori A Knackstedt
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 114 Psychology, 945 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2250, USA.
- Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Smaga I, Fierro D, Mesa J, Filip M, Knackstedt LA. Molecular changes evoked by the beta-lactam antibiotic ceftriaxone across rodent models of substance use disorder and neurological disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 115:116-130. [PMID: 32485268 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Ceftriaxone is a beta-lactam antibiotic that increases the expression of the major glutamate transporter, GLT-1. As such, ceftriaxone ameliorates symptoms across multiple rodent models of neurological diseases and substance use disorders. However, the mechanism behind GLT-1 upregulation is unknown. The present review synthesizes this literature in order to identify commonalities in molecular changes. We find that ceftriaxone (200 mg/kg for at least two days) consistently restores GLT-1 expression in multiple rodent models of neurological disease, especially when GLT-1 is decreased in the disease model. The same dose given to healthy/drug-naive rodents does not reliably upregulate GLT-1 in any brain region except the hippocampus. Increased GLT-1 expression does not consistently arise from transcriptional regulation, and is likely to be due to trafficking changes. In addition to altered transporter expression, ceftriaxone ameliorates neuropathologies (e.g. tau, amyloid beta, cell death) and aberrant protein expression associated with a number of neurological disease models. Taken together, these results indicate that ceftriaxone remains a strong candidate for treatment of multiple disorders in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irena Smaga
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Smętna 12, PL, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Daniel Fierro
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 945 Center Dr., Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Javier Mesa
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 945 Center Dr., Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA; Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Malgorzata Filip
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Smętna 12, PL, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Lori A Knackstedt
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 945 Center Dr., Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA; Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
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Giacometti LL, Barker JM. Sex differences in the glutamate system: Implications for addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 113:157-168. [PMID: 32173404 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Clinical and preclinical research have identified sex differences in substance use and addiction-related behaviors. Historically, substance use disorders are more prevalent in men than women, though this gap is closing. Despite this difference, women appear to be more susceptible to the effects of many drugs and progress to substance abuse treatment more quickly than men. While the glutamate system is a key regulator of addiction-related behaviors, much of the work implicating glutamate signaling and glutamatergic circuits has been conducted in men and male rodents. An increasing number of studies have identified sex differences in drug-induced glutamate alterations as well as sex and estrous cycle differences in drug seeking behaviors. This review will describe sex differences in the glutamate system with an emphasis on implications for substance use disorders, highlighting the gaps in our current understanding of how innate and drug-induced alterations in the glutamate system may contribute to sex differences in addiction-related behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- L L Giacometti
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, United States.
| | - J M Barker
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, United States.
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Stennett BA, Padovan-Hernandez Y, Knackstedt LA. Sequential cocaine-alcohol self-administration produces adaptations in rat nucleus accumbens core glutamate homeostasis that are distinct from those produced by cocaine self-administration alone. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:441-450. [PMID: 31266052 PMCID: PMC6969168 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-019-0452-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There are currently no FDA-approved medications to reduce cocaine relapse. The majority of preclinical studies aimed at identifying the neurobiology underlying relapse involve the self-administration of cocaine alone, whereas many, if not a majority, of cocaine users engage in polysubstance use. Here we developed a rat model of sequential cocaine and alcohol self-administration to test the hypothesis that this combination produces distinct neuroadaptations relative to those produced by cocaine alone. Male rats underwent intravenous cocaine self-administration (2 h/day) followed by 6 h access to unsweetened alcohol (20% v/v) for 12 days. After extinction training, we assessed surface expression of the glutamate transporter GLT-1 and glutamate efflux in the nucleus accumbens (NA) core during the reinstatement of cocaine-seeking. We also tested the ability of ceftriaxone to attenuate the reinstatement of cocaine-seeking and assessed reinstatement-induced Fos expression in several regions critical for reinstatement. Alcohol consumption did not alter cocaine intake, nor did access to cocaine alter alcohol consumption. However, we noted significant changes in glutamate homeostasis in the NA core of cocaine + alcohol rats relative to rats consuming cocaine alone, such as increased surface GLT-1 expression and a lack of increase in glutamate efflux during reinstatement of cocaine-seeking. A history of cocaine + alcohol also altered patterns of reinstatement-induced Fos expression. These changes likely account for the inability of ceftriaxone to attenuate cocaine relapse in cocaine + alcohol rats, while it does so in rats consuming only cocaine. As such glutamate neuroadaptations are targeted by medications to reduce cocaine relapse, preclinical models should consider polysubstance use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany A Stennett
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Center for Addiction Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Yasmin Padovan-Hernandez
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Center for Addiction Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lori A Knackstedt
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- Center for Addiction Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Hassan R, Rabea AA, Ragae A, Sabry D. The prospective role of mesenchymal stem cells exosomes on circumvallate taste buds in induced Alzheimer's disease of ovariectomized albino rats: (Light and transmission electron microscopic study). Arch Oral Biol 2019; 110:104596. [PMID: 31734542 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2019.104596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To elucidate the effect of Alzheimer's disease on the structure of circumvallate papilla taste buds and the possible role of exosomes on the taste buds in Alzheimer's disease. DESIGN Forty two ovariectomized female adult albino rats were utilized and divided into: Group I: received vehicle. Group II: received aluminum chloride to induce Alzheimer's disease. Group III: after the induction of Alzheimer's disease, each rat received single dose of exosomes then left for 4 weeks. The circumvallate papillae were prepared for examination by light and transmission electron microscope. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS histomorphometric data were statistically analyzed. RESULTS Histological examination of circumvallate papilla in Group I showed normal histological features. Group II revealed distorted features. Group III illustrated nearly normal histological features of circumvallate. Silver impregnation results showed apparently great number of heavily impregnated glossopharyngeal nerve fibers in both Groups I & III but markedly decreased in Group II. Synaptophysin-immunoreactivity was strong in Group I, mild in Group II and moderate in Group III. The ultra-structural examination of taste bud cells revealed normal features in Group I, distorted features in Group II and almost normal features in Group III. Statistically highest mean of Synaptophysin-immunoreactivity area% was for Group I, followed by Group III, and the least value was for Group II. CONCLUSIONS Alzheimer's disease has degenerative effects. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BM-MSC)-derived exosomes have the ability to improve the destructive changes induced by Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rabab Hassan
- Lecturer of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Amany A Rabea
- Associate Professor of Oral Biology, Faculty of Oral and Dental Medicine, Future University in Egypt, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Alyaa Ragae
- Professor of General Histology, Faculty of Oral and Dental Medicine, Future University in Egypt, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Dina Sabry
- Professor of Medical biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Bechard AR, Knackstedt LA. The effects of Pavlovian cue extinction and ceftriaxone on cocaine relapse after abstinence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2019; 197:83-86. [PMID: 30784953 PMCID: PMC6440847 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cocaine use disorder is a significant public health problem and currently no medications are FDA-approved to reduce cocaine relapse. Drug-associated cues are reported to elicit craving and cocaine-seeking in humans. Repeated, non-reinforced presentations of drug-associated cues (cue extinction) have been proposed to reduce the ability of such cues to prompt drug-seeking. In rodent models of cocaine relapse, cue extinction reduces cocaine relapse when such extinction occurs in the same context as cocaine self-administration, which is not akin to the manner in which treatment would occur in humans. Here we sought to determine whether cue extinction outside of the cocaine self-administration context would reduce relapse in the drug context. We also hypothesized that ceftriaxone, an antibiotic consistently shown to attenuate cocaine relapse in rats, would enhance the relapse-preventing effects of cue extinction. METHODS Rats self-administered intravenous cocaine for 12 days followed by 20-21 days of abstinence. Immediately preceding the relapse test, rats either underwent 6 single daily cue extinction sessions (1 h/day) outside the self-administration context or no extinction with daily handling. Rats also received vehicle or ceftriaxone (200 mg/kg IP) on those six days. RESULTS Ceftriaxone attenuated cued relapse relative to vehicle-treated rats, but there was no additive effect of cue extinction on cocaine-seeking. Cue extinction alone did not attenuate relapse. CONCLUSIONS Thus, in agreement with work in humans, when cue extinction is conducted outside the drug-associated context it does not reduce the risk of relapse alone. Ceftriaxone remains a strong possibility for medication to reduce cocaine relapse in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison R. Bechard
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32603 USA
| | - Lori A. Knackstedt
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32603 USA
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Bechard AR, Hamor PU, Wu L, Schwendt M, Knackstedt LA. The effects of clavulanic acid and amoxicillin on cue-primed reinstatement of cocaine seeking. Behav Neurosci 2019; 133:247-254. [PMID: 30714803 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Research using the cocaine self-administration and reinstatement animal model of relapse finds that the beta-lactam antibiotic, ceftriaxone, attenuates cocaine-primed reinstatement of cocaine seeking and upregulates two proteins that regulate glutamate release and reuptake (xCT and GLT-1, respectively) in the nucleus accumbens core (NAc). We tested three compounds with beta-lactam rings for their ability to attenuate cue-primed reinstatement and increase GLT-1 and xCT expression in the NAc and prefrontal cortex (PFC). Rats self-administered intravenous cocaine for 1 hr/day for 7 days then 6 hrs/day for 10 days. Cue-primed reinstatement tests began after 8-9 days of extinction training. Rats received oral vehicle, clavulanic acid (CA), amoxicillin (AMX), or CA + AMX (Augmentin; AUG) for 5 days prior to testing. Only AMX-treated rats demonstrated a reduction of cocaine-seeking that trended toward significance, warranting future investigation of a wider range of doses. In the NAc, GLT-1a expression was reduced in vehicle-treated rats relative to cocaine-naïve controls and was not restored by AMX or AUG. CA-treated rats reinstated more than vehicle-treated rats and exhibited GLT-1a and xCT expression intermediate between cocaine-naïve controls and vehicle-treated cocaine rats. In agreement with our previous work, cocaine did not decrease PFC GLT-1a expression. Cocaine reduced xCT expression in the PFC that was unchanged by any of the three compounds. These results indicate that AMX may be another beta-lactam that attenuates cocaine relapse. Furthermore, the upregulation of both GLT-1 and xCT in the NAc may be needed to attenuate cocaine seeking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lizhen Wu
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida
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Shimamoto A, Rappeneau V, Munjal H, Farris T, Davis C, Wilson A, Edwards M, Moore C, Reynolds C, Meshul CK. Glutamate-Glutamine Transfer and Chronic Stress-Induced Sex Differences in Cocaine Responses. Neuroscience 2018; 391:104-119. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Schwendt M, Shallcross J, Hadad NA, Namba MD, Hiller H, Wu L, Krause EG, Knackstedt LA. A novel rat model of comorbid PTSD and addiction reveals intersections between stress susceptibility and enhanced cocaine seeking with a role for mGlu5 receptors. Transl Psychiatry 2018; 8:209. [PMID: 30291225 PMCID: PMC6173705 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-018-0265-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
PTSD is highly comorbid with cocaine use disorder (CUD), and cocaine users with PTSD + CUD are more resistant to treatment. Here we sought to develop a rat model of PTSD + CUD in order to identify the neurobiological changes underlying such comorbidity and screen potential medications for reducing cocaine seeking in the PTSD population. We utilized a predator scent stress model of PTSD, wherein rats received a single exposure to the fox pheromone 2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline (TMT). One week after TMT exposure, stress-susceptible (susceptible), intermediate, and resilient phenotypes were detected and were consistent with behavioral, corticosterone, and gene expression profiles 3 weeks post TMT. We assessed phenotypic differences in cocaine self-administration, extinction, and cue-primed reinstatement. Susceptible rats exhibited deficits in extinction learning and increased cue-primed reinstatement that was not prevented by Ceftriaxone, an antibiotic that consistently attenuates the reinstatement of cocaine seeking. TMT-exposed resilient rats displayed increased mGlu5 gene expression in the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex and did not display the enhanced cocaine seeking observed in susceptible rats. Combined treatment with the mGlu5 positive allosteric modulator 3-Cyano-N-(1,3-diphenyl-1 H-pyrazol-5-yl)benzamide (CDPPB), fear extinction, and ceftriaxone prevented the reinstatement of cocaine seeking in susceptible rats with fear extinction an important mediating condition. These results highlight the need for animal models of PTSD to consider stress-responsivity, as only a subset of trauma-exposed individuals develop PTSD and these individuals likely exhibit distinct neurobiological changes compared with trauma-exposed populations who are resilient to stress. This work further identifies glutamate homeostasis and mGlu5 as a target for treating relapse in comorbid PTSD-cocaine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Schwendt
- Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA. .,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
| | - John Shallcross
- 0000 0004 1936 8091grid.15276.37Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| | - Natalie A. Hadad
- 0000 0004 1936 8091grid.15276.37Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| | - Mark D. Namba
- 0000 0004 1936 8091grid.15276.37Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| | - Helmut Hiller
- 0000 0004 1936 8091grid.15276.37Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610 USA
| | - Lizhen Wu
- 0000 0004 1936 8091grid.15276.37Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| | - Eric G. Krause
- 0000 0004 1936 8091grid.15276.37Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610 USA
| | - Lori A. Knackstedt
- 0000 0004 1936 8091grid.15276.37Psychology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA ,0000 0004 1936 8091grid.15276.37Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610 USA
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Zhao Z, Hiraoka Y, Ogawa H, Tanaka K. Region-specific deletions of the glutamate transporter GLT1 differentially affect nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain in mice. Glia 2018; 66:1988-1998. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Revised: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoyang Zhao
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute (MRI), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), 1-5-45 Yushima; Bunkyo-ku Tokyo 113-8510 Japan
| | - Yuichi Hiraoka
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute (MRI), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), 1-5-45 Yushima; Bunkyo-ku Tokyo 113-8510 Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ogawa
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute (MRI), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), 1-5-45 Yushima; Bunkyo-ku Tokyo 113-8510 Japan
| | - Kohichi Tanaka
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute (MRI), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), 1-5-45 Yushima; Bunkyo-ku Tokyo 113-8510 Japan
- Center for Brain Integration Research (CBIR), TMDU, 1-5-45 Yushima; Bunkyo-ku Tokyo 113-8510 Japan
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Weber RA, Logan CN, Leong KC, Peris J, Knackstedt L, Reichel CM. Regionally Specific Effects of Oxytocin on Reinstatement of Cocaine Seeking in Male and Female Rats. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2018; 21:677-686. [PMID: 29566161 PMCID: PMC6030951 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyy025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oxytocin reduces cued reinstatement of cocaine seeking in male and female rats, but the underlying neurobiology has not been uncovered. The majority of effort on this task has focused on oxytocin and dopamine interactions in the nucleus accumbens core. The nucleus accumbens core is a key neural substrate in relapse, and oxytocin administration in the nucleus accumbens core reduces reinstatement to methamphetamine cues. Further, the nucleus accumbens core has strong glutamatergic innervation from numerous regions including the prefrontal cortex. Thus, we hypothesize that oxytocin regulates presynaptic glutamate terminals in the nucleus accumbens core, thereby affecting reinstatement. METHODS To begin to evaluate this hypothesis, we examined the effects of intra-nucleus accumbens core oxytocin on extracellular glutamate levels in this region. We next determined if direct infusion of oxytocin into the nucleus accumbens core could attenuate cued reinstatement of cocaine seeking in a manner dependent on metabotropic glutamate 2/3 receptors. Finally, we tested if site-specific application of oxytocin in the prefrontal cortex reduced cued reinstatement of cocaine seeking. RESULTS We found an increase in nucleus accumbens core extracellular glutamate for several minutes following reverse dialysis of oxytocin. In male and female rats with a history of cocaine self-administration, site-specific application of oxytocin in the nucleus accumbens core and prefrontal cortex had opposing effects, decreasing and increasing cued reinstatement, respectively. The mGlu2/3 antagonist LY-341495 reversed oxytocin's ability to attenuate cued reinstatement. CONCLUSIONS While the precise mechanism by which oxytocin increases nucleus accumbens core glutamate is yet to be determined, the present results clearly support oxytocin mediation of glutamate neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens core that impacts cued cocaine seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Weber
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Carly N Logan
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Kah-Chung Leong
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Joanna Peris
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Lori Knackstedt
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Carmela M Reichel
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina,Correspondence: Carmela M. Reichel, Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 173 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, SC 29425
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