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Harpaz D, Bernstein N, Namdar D, Eltzov E. Portable biosensors for rapid on-site determination of cannabinoids in cannabis, a review. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 61:108031. [PMID: 36058440 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.108031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies highlight the therapeutic virtues of cannabidiol (CBD). Furthermore, due to their molecular enriched profiles, cannabis inflorescences are biologically superior to a single cannabinoid for the treatment of various health conditions. Thus, there is flourishing demand for Cannabis sativa varieties containing high levels of CBD. Additionally, legal regulations around the world restrict the cultivation and consumption of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-rich cannabis plants for their psychotropic effects. Therefore, the use of cannabis varieties that are high in CBD is permitted as long as their THC content does not exceed a low threshold of 0.3%-0.5%, depending on the jurisdiction. These chemovars are legally termed 'hemp'. This controlled cannabinoid requirement highlights the need to detect low levels of THC, already in the field. In this review, cannabis profiling and the existing methods used for the detection of cannabinoids are firstly evaluated. Then, selected valuable biosensor technologies are discussed, which suggest portable, rapid, sensitive, reproducible, and reliable methods for on-site identification of cannabinoids levels, mainly THC. Recent cutting-edge techniques of promising potential usage for both cannabis and hemp analysis are identified, as part of the future cultivation and agricultural improvement of this crop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorin Harpaz
- Institute of Postharvest and Food Science, Department of Postharvest Science, Volcani Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel; Institute of Biochemistry, Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
| | - Nirit Bernstein
- Institute of Soil Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, POBox 6, Bet-Dagan 50250, Israel.
| | - Dvora Namdar
- Institute of Soil Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, POBox 6, Bet-Dagan 50250, Israel.
| | - Evgeni Eltzov
- Institute of Postharvest and Food Science, Department of Postharvest Science, Volcani Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel.
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2
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Yu H, Lee H, Cheong J, Woo SW, Oh J, Oh HK, Lee JH, Zheng H, Castro CM, Yoo YE, Kim MG, Cheon J, Weissleder R, Lee H. A rapid assay provides on-site quantification of tetrahydrocannabinol in oral fluid. Sci Transl Med 2021; 13:eabe2352. [PMID: 34669441 PMCID: PMC9126021 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abe2352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive ingredient of cannabis, impairs cognitive and motor function in a concentration-dependent fashion. Drug testing is commonly performed for employment and law enforcement purposes; however, available tests produce low-sensitive binary results (lateral flow assays) or have long turnaround (gas chromatography–mass spectrometry). To enable on-site THC quantification in minutes, we developed a rapid assay for oral THC analysis called EPOCH (express probe for on-site cannabis inhalation). EPOCH features distinctive sensor design such as a radial membrane and transmission optics, all contained in a compact cartridge. This integrated approach permitted assay completion within 5 min with a detection limit of 0.17 ng/ml THC, which is below the regulatory guideline (1 ng/ml). As a proof of concept for field testing, we applied EPOCH to assess oral fluid samples from cannabis users (n = 43) and controls (n = 43). EPOCH detected oral THC in all specimens from cannabis smokers (median concentration, 478 ng/ml) and THC-infused food consumers. Longitudinal monitoring showed a fast drop in THC concentrations within the first 6 hours of cannabis smoking (half-life, 1.4 hours).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hojeong Yu
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Hoyeon Lee
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, South Korea
| | - Jiyong Cheong
- Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03722, South Korea
- Graduate Program of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Sang Won Woo
- Department of Nano Manufacturing Technology, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, Daejeon 34103, South Korea
| | - Juhyun Oh
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Hyun-Kyung Oh
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, South Korea
| | - Jae-Hyun Lee
- Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03722, South Korea
- Graduate Program of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Hui Zheng
- Biostatistics Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Cesar M. Castro
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Yeong-Eun Yoo
- Department of Nano Manufacturing Technology, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, Daejeon 34103, South Korea
| | - Min-Gon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, South Korea
| | - Jinwoo Cheon
- Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03722, South Korea
- Graduate Program of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
- Department of Chemistry, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Ralph Weissleder
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Hakho Lee
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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3
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Electrochemical detection of fentanyl with screen-printed carbon electrodes using square-wave adsorptive stripping voltammetry for forensic applications. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.114425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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4
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Wang Y, Compton RG. An Approach to the Electroanalysis of Electrode Passivating Analytes: The Determination of Phenol. ChemElectroChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202000924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanzhe Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Physical and Theoretical Chemistry LaboratoryOxford University South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3QZ UK
| | - Richard G Compton
- Department of Chemistry, Physical and Theoretical Chemistry LaboratoryOxford University South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3QZ UK
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5
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Elliott JR, Le H, Yang M, Compton RG. Using Simulations to Guide the Design of Amperometric Electrochemical Sensors Based on Mediated Electron Transfer. ChemElectroChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202000674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph R. Elliott
- Department of ChemistryPhysical and Theoretical Chemistry LaboratoryOxford University South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3QZ United Kingdom
| | - Haonan Le
- Department of ChemistryPhysical and Theoretical Chemistry LaboratoryOxford University South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3QZ United Kingdom
| | - Minjun Yang
- Department of ChemistryPhysical and Theoretical Chemistry LaboratoryOxford University South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3QZ United Kingdom
| | - Richard G. Compton
- Department of ChemistryPhysical and Theoretical Chemistry LaboratoryOxford University South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3QZ United Kingdom
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6
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Chen H, Elliott JR, Le H, Yang M, Compton RG. Super-Nernstian Tafel slopes: An origin in coupled homogeneous kinetics. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.114185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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8
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Klimuntowski M, Alam MM, Singh G, Howlader MMR. Electrochemical Sensing of Cannabinoids in Biofluids: A Noninvasive Tool for Drug Detection. ACS Sens 2020; 5:620-636. [PMID: 32102542 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b02390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cannabinoid sensing in biofluids provides great insight into the effects of medicinal cannabis on the body. The prevalence of cannabis for pain management and illicit drug use necessitates knowledge translation in cannabinoids. In this Review, we provide an overview of the current detection methods of cannabinoids in bodily fluids emphasizing electrochemical sensing. First, we introduce cannabinoids and discuss the structure and metabolism of Δ9-THC and its metabolites in relation to blood, urine, saliva, sweat, and breath. Next, we briefly discuss lab based techniques for cannabinoids in biofluids. While these techniques are highly sensitive and specific, roadside safety requires a quick, portable, and cost-effective sensing method. These needs motivated a comprehensive review of advantages, disadvantages, and future directions for electrochemical sensing of cannabinoids. The literature shows the lowest limit of detection to be 3.3 pg of Δ9-THC/mL using electrochemical immunosensors, while electrodes fabricated with low cost methods such as screen-printing and carbon paste can detect as little as 25 and 1.26 ng of Δ9-THC/mL, respectively. Future research will include nanomaterial modified working electrodes, for simultaneous sensing of multiple cannabinoids. Additionally, there should be an emphasis on selectivity for cannabinoids in the presence of interfering compounds. Sensors should be fully integrated on biocompatible substrates with control electronics and intelligent components for wearable diagnostics. We hope this Review will prove to be the seminal work in the electrochemical sensing of cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Klimuntowski
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Maksud M. Alam
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Gurmit Singh
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Matiar M. R. Howlader
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
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9
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Mistry S, Wenthold PG. Mass spectrometric detection of the Gibbs reaction for phenol analysis. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2018; 53:947-953. [PMID: 29974598 DOI: 10.1002/jms.4261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes a new method for detecting phenols, by reaction with Gibbs reagent to form indophenols, followed by mass spectrometric detection. Unlike the standard Gibbs reaction, which uses a colorometric approach, the use of mass spectrometry allows for simultaneous detection of differently substituted phenols. The procedure is demonstrated to work for a large variety of phenols without para-substitution. With para-substituted phenols, Gibbs products are still often observed, but the specific product depends on the substituent. For para groups with high electronegativity, such as methoxy or halogens, the reaction proceeds by displacement of the substituent. For groups with lower electronegativity, such as amino or alkyl groups, Gibbs products are observed that retain the substituent, indicating that the reaction occurs at the ortho or meta position. In mixtures of phenols, the relative intensities of the Gibbs products are proportional to the relative concentrations, and concentrations as low as 1 μmol/L can be detected. The method is applied to the qualitative analysis of commercial liquid smoke, and it is found that hickory and mesquite flavors have significantly different phenolic composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabyasachy Mistry
- The Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Purdue University, 560 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Paul G Wenthold
- The Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Purdue University, 560 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
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Hossain MM, Aldous L. Polyoxometalates as solution-phase electrocatalytic mediators for reduced electrode fouling and the improved oxidative response of phenols. Electrochem commun 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2016.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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11
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Du B, Su X, Yang K, Pan L, Liu Q, Gong L, Wang P, Yang J, He Y. Antibody-Free Colorimetric Detection of Total Aflatoxins in Rice Based on a Simple Two-Step Chromogenic Reaction. Anal Chem 2016; 88:3775-80. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bibai Du
- School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiaoou Su
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Kunhao Yang
- School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Long Pan
- School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Qingju Liu
- School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lingling Gong
- School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peilong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jingkui Yang
- School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yujian He
- School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- State
Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
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Balbino MA, de Oliveira LS, Eleotério IC, Oiye EN, Ribeiro MF, McCord BR, Ipolito AJ, de Oliveira MF. The Application of Voltammetric Analysis of Δ9-THC for the Reduction of False Positive Results in the Analysis of Suspected Marijuana Plant Matter. J Forensic Sci 2016; 61:1067-73. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Revised: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 08/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marco A. Balbino
- Departamento de Química; Faculdade de Filosofia; Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto; Universidade de São Paulo; 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto SP Brasil
| | - Laura S. de Oliveira
- Departamento de Química; Faculdade de Filosofia; Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto; Universidade de São Paulo; 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto SP Brasil
| | - Izabel C. Eleotério
- Departamento de Química; Faculdade de Filosofia; Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto; Universidade de São Paulo; 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto SP Brasil
| | - Erica N. Oiye
- Departamento de Química; Faculdade de Filosofia; Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto; Universidade de São Paulo; 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto SP Brasil
| | - Maria F.M. Ribeiro
- Departamento de Química; Faculdade de Filosofia; Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto; Universidade de São Paulo; 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto SP Brasil
| | - Bruce R. McCord
- Chemistry Department; International Forensic Research Institute; Florida International University; Miami FL
| | - Antonio J. Ipolito
- Superintendência de Polícia Técnico-Científica do Estado de São Paulo; Núcleo de Perícias Criminalísticas de Ribeirão Preto; 14015-040 Ribeirão Preto SP Brasil
| | - Marcelo F. de Oliveira
- Departamento de Química; Faculdade de Filosofia; Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto; Universidade de São Paulo; 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto SP Brasil
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13
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Use of screen-printed electrodes for quantification of cocaine and Δ9-THC: adaptions to portable systems for forensic purposes. J Solid State Electrochem 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-016-3145-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Wanklyn C, Burton D, Enston E, Bartlett CA, Taylor S, Raniczkowska A, Black M, Murphy L. Disposable screen printed sensor for the electrochemical detection of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in undiluted saliva. Chem Cent J 2016; 10:1. [PMID: 26807144 PMCID: PMC4722664 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-016-0148-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cannabis has an adverse effect on the ability to drive safely, therefore a rapid disposable test for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), the psychoactive component of cannabis, is highly desirable for roadside testing. Results A screen printed carbon electrode is used for the N-(4-amino-3-methoxyphenyl)-methanesulfonamide mediated detection of Δ9-THC in saliva. Mediator placed in an overlayer was galvanostatically oxidized and reacted with Δ9-THC to give an electrochemically active adduct which could be detected by chronoamperometric reduction. Detection of 25-50 ng/mL Δ9-THC spiked into undiluted saliva was achieved with a response time of 30 s. A trial of the sensors with four cannabis smokers showed sensitivity of 28 %, specificity of 99 % and accuracy of 52 %. Conclusions Rapid electrochemical detection of Δ9-THC in undiluted saliva has been demonstrated using a disposable sensor, however the sensitivity is lower than acceptable. Further optimization of the assay and sensor format is required to improve the sensitivity of response to Δ9-THC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ceri Wanklyn
- Oxtox Limited, Warren House, Mowbray Street, Stockport, SK1 3EJ UK
| | - Dan Burton
- Oxtox Limited, Warren House, Mowbray Street, Stockport, SK1 3EJ UK
| | - Emma Enston
- Oxtox Limited, Warren House, Mowbray Street, Stockport, SK1 3EJ UK
| | | | - Sarah Taylor
- Oxtox Limited, Warren House, Mowbray Street, Stockport, SK1 3EJ UK
| | | | - Murdo Black
- Oxtox Limited, Warren House, Mowbray Street, Stockport, SK1 3EJ UK
| | - Lindy Murphy
- Oxtox Limited, Warren House, Mowbray Street, Stockport, SK1 3EJ UK
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Nissim R, Compton RG. Absorptive stripping voltammetry for cannabis detection. Chem Cent J 2015; 9:41. [PMID: 26155306 PMCID: PMC4493815 DOI: 10.1186/s13065-015-0117-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Given that Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, the active constituent of cannabis, has been shown to greatly reduce driving ability, thus being linked to many drug driving accidents, its reliable detection is of great importance. RESULTS An optimised carbon paste electrode, fabricated from graphite powder and mineral oil, is utilised for the sensitive detection of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in both aqueous solutions of pH 10.0 and in synthetic saliva solutions. "Absorptive Stripping Voltammetry" is exploited to that effect and the paste is used to pre-concentrate the carbon paste electrode with the target molecule. Practical limits of detection of 0.50 μM and 0.10 μM are determined for THC in stationary and stirred aqueous borate buffer solutions, respectively. Theoretical limits of detection are also calculated; values of 0.48 nM and 0.41 nM are determined for stationary and stirred THC aqueous borate buffer solutions, respectively. THC concentrations as low as 0.50 μM are detected in synthetic saliva solutions. The sensitivity of the sensor was 0.12 μA μM(-1), 0.84 μA μM(-1) and 0.067 μA μM(-1) for the stationary buffer, the stirred buffer and the saliva matrix, respectively. CONCLUSIONS "Absorptive Stripping Voltammetry" can be reliably applied to the detection of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, after suitable optimisation of the assay. Usefully low practical limits of detection can be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Nissim
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ UK
| | - Richard G Compton
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ UK
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Goodwin A, Banks C, Compton R. Graphite Micropowder Modified with 4-Amino-2,6-diphenylphenol Supported on Basal Plane Pyrolytic Graphite Electrodes: Micro Sensing Platforms for the Indirect Electrochemical Detection of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Saliva. ELECTROANAL 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200603518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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