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Aknouche F, Ameline A, Kernalleguen A, Arbouche N, Maruejouls C, Kintz P. Toxicological Investigations in a Death Involving 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-Chloamphetamine (DOC) Performed on an Exhumed Body. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:e1-e7. [PMID: 32860677 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
During a party in another country, several adults sniffed a powder presented as being lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). The next morning, two subjects, including a French citizen, were found dead. After a body examination that concluded that the death was due to respiratory and cardiac collapses, the French citizen's corpse was returned to France and buried. Four years later, the body was exhumed, and an autopsy that did not reveal traumatic injury was performed. During the autopsy, biological specimens were collected. A comprehensive toxicological screening, followed by confirmation using ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS-MS) revealed the presence of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-chloamphetamine (DOC) in all specimens: liver (99 ng/g), spleen (28 ng/g), bone (14 ng/g), lung (15 ng/g) and pubic hair (32 pg/mg). No other drug, including pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse were identified, but the circumstances of specimen collection can influence drug stability. Literature survey about DOC stability in biological material did not contribute in interpretation as there is no data dealing with storage for about 4 years before quantitative analysis. A stability study was performed at the laboratory. Blank blood was spiked with DOC at 1 mg/L, stored at + 4°C and -20°C and regularly tested over 6 months. The percentages of concentration remaining from the initial concentration of DOC stored for 6 months at + 4°C and -20°C were 53% and 59%, respectively. To characterize the metabolite(s) of DOC, the drug was incubated with a pool of human hepatic microsomes and the cofactors required to ensure the functioning of the main phase I enzymes. The incubation media were analyzed by liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS), and the results showed hydroxy-DOC. However, the hydroxy-metabolite was not identified in the liver or spleen of the subject. Although the French pathologist considered that it was more likely than not a toxic death, it is difficult to attribute the death to DOC alone, as it was impossible to test for ethanol and other chemically instable drugs. This case presents original data, which can be useful to increase the knowledge in designer drug toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alice Ameline
- Institut de médecine légale, 11 rue Humann, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | | | - Nadia Arbouche
- Institut de médecine légale, 11 rue Humann, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | | | - Pascal Kintz
- Institut de médecine légale, 11 rue Humann, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.,X-Pertise Consulting, 42 rue principale, F-67206 Mittelhausbergen, France
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Halberstadt AL, Chatha M, Stratford A, Grill M, Brandt SD. Comparison of the behavioral responses induced by phenylalkylamine hallucinogens and their tetrahydrobenzodifuran ("FLY") and benzodifuran ("DragonFLY") analogs. Neuropharmacology 2019; 144:368-376. [PMID: 30385253 PMCID: PMC6863604 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, rigid analogs of phenylalkylamine hallucinogens have appeared as recreational drugs. Examples include 2-(8-bromo-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']difuran-4-yl)ethan-1-amine (2C-B-FLY) and 1-(8-bromobenzo[1,2-b;4,5-b']difuran-4-yl)-2-aminopropane (Bromo-DragonFLY, DOB-DFLY). Although some rigid compounds such as DOB-DFLY reportedly have higher potency than their non-rigid counterparts, it is not clear whether the same is true for 2C-B-FLY and other tetrahydrobenzodifurans. In the present study, the head twitch response (HTR), a 5-HT2A receptor-mediated behavior induced by serotonergic hallucinogens, was used to assess the effects of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB) and its α-desmethyl homologue 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (2C-B), as well as their benzodifuranyl and tetrahydrobenzodifuranyl analogs, in C57BL/6J mice. DOB (ED50 = 0.75 μmol/kg) and 2C-B (ED50 = 2.43 μmol/kg) induced the HTR. The benzodifurans DOB-DFLY (ED50 = 0.20 μmol/kg) and 2C-B-DFLY (ED50 = 1.07 μmol/kg) had significantly higher potency than DOB and 2C-B, respectively. The tetrahydrobenzodifurans DOB-FLY (ED50 = 0.67 μmol/kg) and 2C-B-FLY (ED50 = 1.79 μmol/kg), by contrast, were approximately equipotent with their non-rigid counterparts. Three novel tetrahydrobenzodifurans (2C-I-FLY, 2C-E-FLY and 2C-EF-FLY) were also active in the HTR assay but had relatively low potency. In summary, the in vivo potency of 2,5-dimethoxyphenylalkylamines is enhanced when the 2- and 5-methoxy groups are incorporated into aromatic furan rings, whereas potency is not altered if the methoxy groups are incorporated into dihydrofuran rings. The potency relationships for these compounds in mice closely parallel the human hallucinogenic data. The high potency of DOB-DFLY is probably linked to the presence of two structural features (a benzodifuran nucleus and an α-methyl group) known to enhance the potency of phenylalkylamine hallucinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam L Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA; Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr., San Diego, CA, 92161, USA.
| | - Muhammad Chatha
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
| | | | - Matthias Grill
- Lipomed AG, Fabrikmattenweg 4, CH-4144, Arlesheim, Switzerland
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
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Gracia-Lor E, Castiglioni S, Bade R, Been F, Castrignanò E, Covaci A, González-Mariño I, Hapeshi E, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Kinyua J, Lai FY, Letzel T, Lopardo L, Meyer MR, O'Brien J, Ramin P, Rousis NI, Rydevik A, Ryu Y, Santos MM, Senta I, Thomaidis NS, Veloutsou S, Yang Z, Zuccato E, Bijlsma L. Measuring biomarkers in wastewater as a new source of epidemiological information: Current state and future perspectives. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2017; 99:131-150. [PMID: 28038971 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The information obtained from the chemical analysis of specific human excretion products (biomarkers) in urban wastewater can be used to estimate the exposure or consumption of the population under investigation to a defined substance. A proper biomarker can provide relevant information about lifestyle habits, health and wellbeing, but its selection is not an easy task as it should fulfil several specific requirements in order to be successfully employed. This paper aims to summarize the current knowledge related to the most relevant biomarkers used so far. In addition, some potential wastewater biomarkers that could be used for future applications were evaluated. For this purpose, representative chemical classes have been chosen and grouped in four main categories: (i) those that provide estimates of lifestyle factors and substance use, (ii) those used to estimate the exposure to toxicants present in the environment and food, (iii) those that have the potential to provide information about public health and illness and (iv) those used to estimate the population size. To facilitate the evaluation of the eligibility of a compound as a biomarker, information, when available, on stability in urine and wastewater and pharmacokinetic data (i.e. metabolism and urinary excretion profile) has been reviewed. Finally, several needs and recommendations for future research are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Gracia-Lor
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon, Spain; IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Richard Bade
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon, Spain.
| | - Frederic Been
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Erika Castrignanò
- Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Iria González-Mariño
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Evroula Hapeshi
- NIREAS-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus.
| | | | - Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Foon Yin Lai
- Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Thomas Letzel
- Analytical Group, Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Germany.
| | - Luigi Lopardo
- Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany.
| | - Jake O'Brien
- National Research Center for Environmental Toxicology, The University of Queensland, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia.
| | - Pedram Ramin
- Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark.
| | - Nikolaos I Rousis
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Axel Rydevik
- Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Yeonsuk Ryu
- Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Miguel M Santos
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, LA-Interdisciplinary Centre for marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Portugal; FCUP-Dept of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Ivan Senta
- Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - Nikolaos S Thomaidis
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece.
| | - Sofia Veloutsou
- Analytical Group, Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Germany.
| | - Zhugen Yang
- Division of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, G128LT Glasgow, United Kingdom.
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon, Spain.
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Tyrkkö E, Andersson M, Kronstrand R. The Toxicology of New Psychoactive Substances: Synthetic Cathinones and Phenylethylamines. Ther Drug Monit 2016; 38:190-216. [PMID: 26587869 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New psychoactive substances (NPSs) are substitutes for classical drugs of abuse and there are now compounds available from all groups of classical drugs of abuse. During 2014, the number of synthetic cathinones increased dramatically and, together with phenylethylamines, they dominate the NPS markets in the European Union. In total, 31 cathinones and 9 phenylethylamines were encountered in 2014. The aim of this article was to summarize the existing knowledge about the basic pharmacology, metabolism, and human toxicology of relevant synthetic cathinones and phenylethylamines. Compared with existing reviews, we have also compiled the existing case reports from both fatal and nonfatal intoxications. METHODS We performed a comprehensive literature search using bibliographic databases PubMed and Web of Science, complemented with Google Scholar. The focus of the literature search was on original articles, case reports, and previously published review articles published in 2014 or earlier. RESULTS The rapid increase of NPSs is a growing concern and sets new challenges not only for societies in drug prevention and legislation but also in clinical and forensic toxicology. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that the pharmacodynamic profile of cathinones is similar to that of other psychomotor stimulants. Metabolism studies show that cathinones and phenylethylamines are extensively metabolized; however, the parent compound is usually detectable in human urine. In vitro studies have shown that many cathinones and phenylethylamines are metabolized by CYP2D6 enzymes. This indicates that these drugs may have many possible drug-drug interactions and that genetic polymorphism may influence their toxicity. However, the clinical and toxicological relevance of CYP2D6 in adverse effects of cathinones and phenylethylamines is questionable, because these compounds are metabolized by other enzymes as well. The toxidromes commonly encountered after ingestion of cathinones and phenylethylamines are mainly of sympathomimetic and hallucinogenic character with a risk of excited delirium and life-threatening cardiovascular effects. CONCLUSIONS The acute and chronic toxicity of many NPSs is unknown or very sparsely investigated. There is a need for evidence-based-treatment recommendations for acute intoxications and a demand for new strategies to analyze these compounds in clinical and forensic cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elli Tyrkkö
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
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Welter J, Brandt SD, Kavanagh P, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Metabolic fate, mass spectral fragmentation, detectability, and differentiation in urine of the benzofuran designer drugs 6-APB and 6-MAPB in comparison to their 5-isomers using GC-MS and LC-(HR)-MS(n) techniques. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:3457-70. [PMID: 25711990 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8552-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 01/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The number of so-called new psychoactive substances (NPS) is still increasing by modification of the chemical structure of known (scheduled) drugs. As analogues of amphetamines, 2-aminopropyl-benzofurans were sold. They were consumed because of their euphoric and empathogenic effects. After the 5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofurans, the 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran isomers appeared. Thus, the question arose whether the metabolic fate, the mass spectral fragmentation, and the detectability in urine are comparable or different and how an intake can be differentiated. In the present study, 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB) and its N-methyl derivative 6-MAPB (N-methyl-6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran) were investigated to answer these questions. The metabolites of both drugs were identified in rat urine and human liver preparations using GC-MS and/or liquid chromatography-high resolution-mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS(n)). Besides the parent drug, the main metabolite of 6-APB was 4-carboxymethyl-3-hydroxy amphetamine and the main metabolites of 6-MAPB were 6-APB (N-demethyl metabolite) and 4-carboxymethyl-3-hydroxy methamphetamine. The cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzymes involved in the 6-MAPB N-demethylation were CYP1A2, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4. An intake of a common users' dose of 6-APB or 6-MAPB could be confirmed in rat urine using the authors' GC-MS and the LC-MS(n) standard urine screening approaches with the corresponding parent drugs as major target allowing their differentiation. Furthermore, a differentiation of 6-APB and 6-MAPB in urine from their positional isomers 5-APB and 5-MAPB was successfully performed after solid phase extraction and heptafluorobutyrylation by GC-MS via their retention times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Welter
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany
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Burish MJ, Thoren KL, Madou M, Toossi S, Shah M. Hallucinogens causing seizures? A case report of the synthetic amphetamine 2,5-dimethoxy-4-chloroamphetamine. Neurohospitalist 2015; 5:32-4. [PMID: 25553227 DOI: 10.1177/1941874414528939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although traditional hallucinogenic drugs such as marijuana and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are not typically associated with seizures, newer synthetic hallucinogenic drugs can provoke seizures. Here, we report the unexpected consequences of taking a street-bought hallucinogenic drug thought to be LSD. Our patient presented with hallucinations and agitation progressing to status epilepticus with a urine toxicology screen positive only for cannabinoids and opioids. Using liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry, an additional drug was found: an amphetamine-derived phenylethylamine called 2,5-dimethoxy-4-chloroamphetamine. We bring this to the attention of the neurologic community as there are a growing number of hallucinogenic street drugs that are negative on standard urine toxicology and cause effects that are unexpected for both the patient and the neurologist, including seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Burish
- Department of Neurology, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Katie L Thoren
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Maura Madou
- Department of Neurology, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Shahed Toossi
- Department of Neurology, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Maulik Shah
- Department of Neurology, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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7
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Welter J, Kavanagh P, Maurer HH. GC-MS and LC-(high-resolution)-MS(n) studies on the metabolic fate and detectability of camfetamine in rat urine. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:3815-29. [PMID: 24828975 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-7796-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Camfetamine (N-methyl-3-phenyl-norbornan-2-amine; CFA) belongs as amphetamine-type stimulant to the so-called new psychoactive substances. CFA is an analogue of fencamfamine, an appetite suppressant developed in the 1960s. The described effects of CFA are slight stimulation and increased vigilance and the side effects are tachycardia, paranoia, and sleeplessness. The aims of the presented work were to study the metabolic fate and the detectability of CFA in urine and to elucidate which cytochrome-P450 (CYP) isoenzymes are involved in the main metabolic steps. For metabolism studies, rat urine samples were isolated by solid-phase extraction without and after enzymatic cleavage of conjugates. The phase I metabolites were separated and identified after/without acetylation by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and/or liquid chromatography-high resolution-linear ion trap mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS(n)), respectively, and the phase II metabolites by LC-HR-MS(n). From the identified metabolites, the following main metabolic pathways were deduced: N-demethylation, aromatic mono or bis-hydroxylation followed by methylation of one hydroxy group, hydroxylation of the norbornane ring, combination of these steps, and glucuronidation and/or sulfation of the hydroxy metabolites. The N-demethylation was catalyzed by CYP2B6, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4, the aromatic hydroxylation by CYP2C19 and CYP2D6, and the aliphatic hydroxylation was catalyzed by CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4. Finally, the intake of a common user's dose of CFA could be confirmed in rat urine using the authors' GC-MS and the LC-MS(n) standard urine screening approaches via CFA and several metabolites, with the hydroxy-aryl CFA and the corresponding glucuronide being the most abundant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Welter
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany
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Studies on the metabolism and the detectability of 4-methyl-amphetamine and its isomers 2-methyl-amphetamine and 3-methyl-amphetamine in rat urine using GC-MS and LC-(high-resolution)-MS n. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:1957-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7595-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 12/12/2013] [Accepted: 12/19/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Meyer MR, Lindauer C, Welter J, Maurer HH. Dimethocaine, a synthetic cocaine analogue: studies on its in-vivo metabolism and its detectability in urine by means of a rat model and liquid chromatography–linear ion-trap (high-resolution) mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:1845-54. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7539-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2013] [Revised: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Meyer GMJ, Maurer HH. Qualitative metabolism assessment and toxicological detection of xylazine, a veterinary tranquilizer and drug of abuse, in rat and human urine using GC–MS, LC–MS n , and LC–HR-MS n. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:9779-89. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7419-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Revised: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Meyer MR, Mauer S, Meyer GMJ, Dinger J, Klein B, Westphal F, Maurer HH. Thein vivoandin vitrometabolism and the detectability in urine of 3’,4’-methylenedioxy-alpha-pyrrolidinobutyrophenone (MDPBP), a new pyrrolidinophenone-type designer drug, studied by GC-MS and LC-MSn. Drug Test Anal 2013; 6:746-56. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Revised: 08/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Sandra Mauer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Golo M. J. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Julia Dinger
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
| | - Birgit Klein
- Hessisches Landeskriminalamt; D-65187 Wiesbaden Germany
| | | | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421 Homburg (Saar) Germany
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Meyer MR, Bach M, Welter J, Bovens M, Turcant A, Maurer HH. Ketamine-derived designer drug methoxetamine: metabolism including isoenzyme kinetics and toxicological detectability using GC-MS and LC-(HR-)MS n. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:6307-21. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7051-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2013] [Revised: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Meyer MR, Schmitt S, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism and detectability of the emerging drug of abuse diphenyl-2-pyrrolidinemethanol (D2PM) in rat urine using GC-MS and LC-HR-MS/MS. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2013; 48:243-249. [PMID: 23378097 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Revised: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/18/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In the last years, the number of new psychoactive substances, so-called 'legal highs', has enormously increased. They are sold via online shops often with inaccurate and false information about the content. The aim of this work was to study the metabolism and the detectability of the drug of abuse diphenyl-2-pyrrolidinemethanol (D2PM) in rat urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-high resolution-tandem mass spectrometry. Five phase I and two phase II metabolites were identified suggesting hydroxylation at the pyrrolidine and diphenyl part as the main metabolic steps. Assuming similar kinetics, an intake of D2PM should be detectable in human urine mainly via its metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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Welter J, Meyer MR, Wolf E, Weinmann W, Kavanagh P, Maurer HH. 2-Methiopropamine, a thiophene analogue of methamphetamine: studies on its metabolism and detectability in the rat and human using GC-MS and LC-(HR)-MS techniques. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:3125-35. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6741-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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15
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Meyer MR, Prosser D, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism and detectability of the designer drug β-naphyrone in rat urine using GC-MS and LC-HR-MS/MS. Drug Test Anal 2013; 5:259-65. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 11/06/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical, Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421; Homburg; Saar; Germany
| | - Denise Prosser
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical, Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421; Homburg; Saar; Germany
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical, Pharmacology and Toxicology; Saarland University; D-66421; Homburg; Saar; Germany
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Meyer GMJ, Meyer MR, Wissenbach DK, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism and toxicological detection of glaucine, an isoquinoline alkaloid from Glaucium flavum (Papaveraceae), in rat urine using GC-MS, LC-MS(n) and LC-high-resolution MS(n). JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2013; 48:24-41. [PMID: 23303745 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2012] [Revised: 09/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/21/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Glaucine ((S)-5,6,6a,7-tetrahydro-1,2,9,10-tetramethoxy-6-methyl-4H-dibenzo [de,g]quinoline) is an isoquinoline alkaloid and main component of Glaucium flavum (Papaveraceae). It was described to be consumed as recreational drug alone or in combination with other drugs. Besides this, glaucine is used as therapeutic drug in Bulgaria and other countries as cough suppressant. Currently, there are no data available concerning metabolism and toxicological analysis of glaucine. To study both, glaucine was orally administered to Wistar rats and urine was collected. For metabolism studies, work-up of urine samples consisted of protein precipitation or enzymatic cleavage followed by solid-phase extraction. Samples were afterwards measured by liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to low or high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS). The phase I and II metabolites were identified by detailed interpretation of the corresponding fragmentations, which were further confirmed by determination of their elemental composition using HR-MS. From these data, the following metabolic pathways could be proposed: O-demethylation at position 2, 9 and 10, N-demethylation, hydroxylation, N-oxidation and combinations of them as well as glucuronidation and/or sulfation of the phenolic metabolites. For monitoring a glaucine intake in case of abuse or poisoning, the O- and N-demethylated metabolites were the main targets for the gas chromatography-MS and LC-MS(n) screening approaches described by the authors. Both allowed confirming an intake of glaucine in rat urine after a dose of 2 mg/kg body mass corresponding to a common abuser's dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Golo M J Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany
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Meyer MR, Vollmar C, Schwaninger AE, Wolf E, Maurer HH. New cathinone-derived designer drugs 3-bromomethcathinone and 3-fluoromethcathinone: studies on their metabolism in rat urine and human liver microsomes using GC-MS and LC-high-resolution MS and their detectability in urine. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2012; 47:253-262. [PMID: 22359337 DOI: 10.1002/jms.2960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
3-Bromomethcathinone (3-BMC) and 3-Fluoromethcathinone (3-FMC) are two new designer drugs, which were seized in Israel during 2009 and had also appeared on the illicit drug market in Germany. These two compounds were sold via the Internet as so-called "bath salts" or "plant feeders." The aim of the present study was to identify for the first time the 3-BMC and 3-FMC Phase I and II metabolites in rat urine and human liver microsomes using GC-MS and LC-high-resolution MS (HR-MS) and to test for their detectability by established urine screening approaches using GC-MS or LC-MS. Furthermore, the human cytochrome-P450 (CYP) isoenzymes responsible for the main metabolic steps were studied to highlight possible risks of consumption due to drug-drug interaction or genetic variations. For the first aim, rat urine samples were extracted after and without enzymatic cleavage of conjugates. The metabolites were separated and identified by GC-MS and by LC-HR-MS. The main metabolic steps were N-demethylation, reduction of the keto group to the corresponding alcohol, hydroxylation of the aromatic system and combinations of these steps. The elemental composition of the metabolites identified by GC-MS could be confirmed by LC-HR-MS. Furthermore, corresponding Phase II metabolites were identified using the LC-HR-MS approach. For both compounds, detection in rat urine was possible within the authors' systematic toxicological analysis using both GC-MS and LC-MS(n) after a suspected recreational users dose. Following CYP enzyme kinetic studies, CYP2B6 was the most relevant enzyme for both the N-demethylation of 3-BMC and 3-FMC after in vitro-in vivo extrapolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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Current status of hyphenated mass spectrometry in studies of the metabolism of drugs of abuse, including doping agents. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 402:195-208. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5331-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Abstract
Since the late 1990s the illicit drug market has undergone considerable change: along with the traditional drugs of abuse that still dominate, more than 100 psychotropic substances designed to bypass controlled substances legislation have appeared and led to intoxications and fatalities. Starting from the huge class of phenylalkylamines, containing many subgroups, the spectrum of structures has grown from tryptamines, piperazines, phenylcyclohexyl derivates and pyrrolidinophenones to synthetic cannabinoids and the first synthetic cocaine. Due to the small prevalence and high number of unknown substances, the detection of new designer drugs is a challenge for clinical and forensic toxicologists. Standard screening procedures might fail because a recently discovered or yet unknown substance has not been incorporated in the library used. Nevertheless, many metabolism studies, case reports, screening methods and substance-profiling papers concentrating on single compounds have been published. This review provides an overview of the developed bioanalytical and analytical methods, the matrices used, sample-preparation procedures, concentration of analytes in case of intoxication and also gives a résumé of immunoassay experiences. Additionally, six screening methods for biological matrices with a larger spectrum of analytes are described in more detail.
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Colorimetric detection and chromatographic analyses of designer drugs in biological materials: a comprehensive review. Forensic Toxicol 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-010-0107-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Abstract
In recent years, besides the classic designer drugs of the amphetamine type, a series of new drug classes appeared on the illicit drugs market. The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, metabolism, and toxicokinetics is discussed of 2,5-dimethoxy amphetamines, 2,5-dimethoxy phenethylamines, beta-keto-amphetamines, phencyclidine derivatives as well as of herbal drugs, ie, Kratom. They have gained popularity and notoriety as rave drugs. The metabolic pathways, the involvement of cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in the main pathways, and their roles in hepatic clearance are also summarized.
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Meyer MR, Du P, Schuster F, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism of the α-pyrrolidinophenone designer drug methylenedioxy-pyrovalerone (MDPV) in rat and human urine and human liver microsomes using GC-MS and LC-high-resolution MS and its detectability in urine by GC-MS. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2010; 45:1426-1442. [PMID: 21053377 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Since the late 1990s, many derivatives of the α-pyrrolidinophenone (PPP) drug class appeared on the drugs of abuse market. The latest compound was described in 2009 to be a classic PPP carrying a methylenedioxy moiety remembering the classic entactogens (ecstasy). Besides Germany, 3,4-methylene-dioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) has appeared in many countries in Europe and Asia, indicating its worldwide importance for forensic and clinical toxicology. The aim of the presented work was to identify the phase I and II metabolites of MDPV and the human cytochrome-P450 (CYP) isoenzymes responsible for its main metabolic step(s). Finally, the detectability of MDPV in urine by the authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) should be studied. The urine samples were extracted after and without enzymatic cleavage of conjugates. The metabolites were separated and identified after work-up by GC-MS and liquid chromatography (LC)-high-resolution MS (LC-HR-MS). The studies revealed the following phase I main metabolic steps in rat and human: demethylenation followed by methylation, aromatic and side chain hydroxylation and oxidation of the pyrrolidine ring to the corresponding lactam as well as ring opening to the corresponding carboxylic acid. Using LC-HR-MS, most metabolite structures postulated according to GC-MS fragmentation could be confirmed and the phase II metabolites were identified. Finally, the formation of the initial metabolite demethylenyl-MDPV could be confirmed using incubation of human liver microsomes. Using recombinant human CYPs, CYP 2C19, CYP 2D6 and CYP 1A2 were found to catalyze this initial step. Finally, the STA allowed the detection of MDPV metabolites in the human urine samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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Meyer MR, Wilhelm J, Peters FT, Maurer HH. Beta-keto amphetamines: studies on the metabolism of the designer drug mephedrone and toxicological detection of mephedrone, butylone, and methylone in urine using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 397:1225-33. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-3636-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2009] [Revised: 03/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Maher HM, Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC–MS and GC–IRD studies on dimethoxyamphetamines (DMA): Regioisomers related to 2,5-DMA. Forensic Sci Int 2009; 192:115-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2009] [Revised: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 08/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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