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Plata-Calzado C, Prieto AI, Cameán AM, Jos A. Analytical Methods for Anatoxin-a Determination: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:198. [PMID: 38668623 PMCID: PMC11053625 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Anatoxin-a (ATX-a) is a potent neurotoxin produced by several species of cyanobacteria whose exposure can have direct consequences, including neurological disorders and death. The increasing prevalence of harmful cyanobacterial blooms makes the detection and reliable assessment of ATX-a levels essential to prevent the risk associated with public health. Therefore, the aim of this review is to compile the analytical methods developed to date for the detection and quantification of ATX-a levels alone and in mixtures with other cyanotoxins and their suitability. A classification of the analytical methods available is fundamental to make an appropriate choice according to the type of sample, the equipment available, and the required sensitivity and specificity for each specific purpose. The most widely used detection technique for the quantification of this toxin is liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The analytical methods reviewed herein focus mainly on water and cyanobacterial samples, so the need for validated analytical methods in more complex matrices (vegetables and fish) for the determination of ATX-a to assess dietary exposure to this toxin is evidenced. There is currently a trend towards the validation of multitoxin methods as opposed to single-ATX-a determination methods, which corresponds to the real situation of cyanotoxins' confluence in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ana I. Prieto
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad de Sevilla, Profesor García González 2, 41012 Seville, Spain; (C.P.-C.); (A.M.C.); (A.J.)
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2
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Aparicio-Muriana MDM, Lara FJ, Olmo-Iruela MD, García-Campaña AM. Determination of Multiclass Cyanotoxins in Blue-Green Algae (BGA) Dietary Supplements Using Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15020127. [PMID: 36828442 PMCID: PMC9960112 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15020127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the consumption of blue-green algae (BGA) dietary supplements is increasing because of their health benefits. However, cyanobacteria can produce cyanotoxins, which present serious health risks. In this work we propose hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) to determine cyanotoxins in BGA dietary supplements. Target toxins, including microcystin-leucine-arginine (MC-LR) and microcystin-arginine-arginine (MC-RR), nodularin, anatoxin-a and three non-protein amino acids, β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB) and N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine (AEG), were separated using a SeQuant ZIC-HILIC column. Cyanotoxin extraction was based on solid-liquid extraction (SLE) followed by a tandem-solid phase extraction (SPE) procedure using Strata-X and mixed-mode cation-exchange (MCX) cartridges. The method was validated for BGA dietary supplements obtaining quantification limits from 60 to 300 µg·kg-1. Nine different commercial supplements were analyzed, and DAB, AEG, and MCs were found in some samples, highlighting the relevance of monitoring these substances as precaution measures for the safe consumption of these products.
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Pan L, Huang JJ, Chen J, He X, Wang Y, Wang J, Wang B. Trace determination of multiple hydrophilic cyanotoxins in freshwater by off- and on-line solid phase extraction coupled to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 853:158545. [PMID: 36075415 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Hydrophilic cyanotoxins (HCTs), such as paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), anatoxin-a (ATX-a), and cylindrospermopsin (CYN) are highly toxic and toxin-producing algae are widely distributed worldwide. However, HCTs, especially PSTs, are rarely reported in freshwater due to analytical limitations. This may result in an underestimation of the ecological risks and health risks. This study developed a new method to detect ATX-a, CYN, and thirteen common PSTs in freshwater simultaneously by using off-line solid phase extraction (SPE) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The limits of detection (LODs) of all targets were lower than 0.05 μg/L, which could meet the regulatory requirements for monitoring of HCTs in drinking water in different countries and regions. To improve the detection sensitivities for trace PSTs, a method based on off-line SPE and on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS was established with LOD around 0.001 μg/L. GTX1&4, GTX2&3, and GTX5 were detected in freshwater in China for the first time, highlighting that overall communities are facing potential risks of exposure to various PSTs in China. High concentrations of ATX-a and CYN were also detected in freshwater from Northern China. The proposed method helps to understand the pollution status of HCT in water bodies, especially during the non-algal bloom period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Pan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sino-Canada Joint R&D Centre for Water and Environmental Safety, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China; Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Jinhui Jeanne Huang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sino-Canada Joint R&D Centre for Water and Environmental Safety, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China.
| | - Junhui Chen
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Xiuping He
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Yuning Wang
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Jiuming Wang
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Baodong Wang
- Marine Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266071, China
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Confirmation Using Triple Quadrupole and High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry of a Fatal Canine Neurotoxicosis following Exposure to Anatoxins at an Inland Reservoir. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110804. [PMID: 36422978 PMCID: PMC9696769 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms are often associated with the presence of harmful natural compounds which can cause adverse health effects in both humans and animals. One family of these compounds, known as anatoxins, have been linked to the rapid deaths of cattle and dogs through neurotoxicological action. Here, we report the findings resulting from the death of a dog at a freshwater reservoir in SW England. Poisoning was rapid following exposure to material at the side of the lake. Clinical signs included neurological distress, diaphragmatic paralysis and asphyxia prior to death after 45 min of exposure. Analysis by HILIC-MS/MS of urine and stomach content samples from the dog revealed the detection of anatoxin-a and dihydroanatoxin-a in both samples with higher concentrations of the latter quantified in both matrices. Detection and quantitative accuracy was further confirmed with use of accurate mass LC-HRMS. Additional anatoxin analogues were also detected by LC-HRMS, including 4-keto anatoxin-a, 4-keto-homo anatoxin-a, expoxy anatoxin-a and epoxy homo anatoxin-a. The conclusion of neurotoxicosis was confirmed with the use of two independent analytical methods showing positive detection and significantly high quantified concentrations of these neurotoxins in clinical samples. Together with the clinical signs observed, we have confirmed that anatoxins were responsible for the rapid death of the dog in this case.
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Cevallos-Cedeño RE, Quiñones-Reyes G, Agulló C, Abad-Somovilla A, Abad-Fuentes A, Mercader JV. Rapid Immunochemical Methods for Anatoxin-a Monitoring in Environmental Water Samples. Anal Chem 2022; 94:10857-10864. [PMID: 35853613 PMCID: PMC9352146 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c01939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
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Algal blooms that contaminate freshwater resources with
cyanotoxins
constitute, nowadays, a global concern. To deal with this problem,
a variety of analytical methods, including immunochemical assays,
are available for the main algal toxins, for example, microcystins,
nodularins, and saxitoxins, with the remarkable exception of anatoxin-a.
Now, for the first time, highly sensitive, enantioselective immunoassays
for anatoxin-a have been validated using homemade monoclonal antibodies.
Two competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were developed
in different formats, with detection limits for (+)-anatoxin-a of
0.1 ng/mL. Excellent recovery values between 82 and 117%, and coefficients
of variation below 20%, were observed using environmental water samples
fortified between 0.5 and 500 ng/mL. In addition, a lateral-flow immunochromatographic
assay was optimized for visual and instrumental reading of results.
This test showed a visual detection limit for (+)-anatoxin-a of 4
ng/mL. Performance with a reader was validated in accordance with
the European guidelines for semiquantitative rapid methods for small
chemical contaminants. Thus, at a screening target concentration of
2 ng/mL, the probability of a blank sample to be classified as “suspect”
was as low as 0.2%. Finally, the optimized direct enzyme immunoassay
was validated by comparison with high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem
mass spectroscopy data and showed a good correlation (r = 0.995) with a slope of 0.94. Moreover, environmental water samples
containing more than 2 ng/mL of anatoxin-a were detected by the developed
dipstick assay. These results provide supplementary and complementary
strategies for monitoring the presence of anatoxin-a in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramón E Cevallos-Cedeño
- Institute of Agricultural Chemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish Scientific Research Council (CSIC), Av. Agustí Escardino 7, Paterna 46980, Valencia, Spain
| | - Guillermo Quiñones-Reyes
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Valencia, Doctor Moliner 50, Burjassot 46100, Valencia, Spain
| | - Consuelo Agulló
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Valencia, Doctor Moliner 50, Burjassot 46100, Valencia, Spain
| | - Antonio Abad-Somovilla
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Valencia, Doctor Moliner 50, Burjassot 46100, Valencia, Spain
| | - Antonio Abad-Fuentes
- Institute of Agricultural Chemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish Scientific Research Council (CSIC), Av. Agustí Escardino 7, Paterna 46980, Valencia, Spain
| | - Josep V Mercader
- Institute of Agricultural Chemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish Scientific Research Council (CSIC), Av. Agustí Escardino 7, Paterna 46980, Valencia, Spain
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Colas S, Marie B, Lance E, Quiblier C, Tricoire-Leignel H, Mattei C. Anatoxin-a: Overview on a harmful cyanobacterial neurotoxin from the environmental scale to the molecular target. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 193:110590. [PMID: 33307089 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Anatoxin-a (ATX-a) is a neurotoxic alkaloid, produced by several freshwater planktonic and benthic cyanobacteria (CB). Such CB have posed human and animal health issues for several years, as this toxin is able to cause neurologic symptoms in humans following food poisoning and death in wild and domestic animals. Different episodes of animal intoxication have incriminated ATX-a worldwide, as confirmed by the presence of ATX-a-producing CB in the consumed water or biofilm, or the observation of neurotoxic symptoms, which match experimental toxicity in vivo. Regarding toxicity parameters, toxicokinetics knowledge is currently incomplete and needs to be improved. The toxin can passively cross biological membranes and act rapidly on nicotinic receptors, its main molecular target. In vivo and in vitro acute effects of ATX-a have been studied and make possible to draw its mode of action, highlighting its deleterious effects on the nervous systems and its effectors, namely muscles, heart and vessels, and the respiratory apparatus. However, very little is known about its putative chronic toxicity. This review updates available data on ATX-a, from the ecodynamic of the toxin to its physiological and molecular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Colas
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN "Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro-organismes", Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France; Mitochondrial and Cardiovascular Pathophysiology - MITOVASC, UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM U1083, UBL/Angers University, Angers, France
| | - Benjamin Marie
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN "Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro-organismes", Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Emilie Lance
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN "Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro-organismes", Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Quiblier
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN "Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro-organismes", Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France; Université de Paris - Paris Diderot, 5 rue Thomas Mann, Paris, France
| | - Hélène Tricoire-Leignel
- Mitochondrial and Cardiovascular Pathophysiology - MITOVASC, UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM U1083, UBL/Angers University, Angers, France.
| | - César Mattei
- Mitochondrial and Cardiovascular Pathophysiology - MITOVASC, UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM U1083, UBL/Angers University, Angers, France.
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7
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Tran NH, Li Y, Reinhard M, Goh KC, Sukarji NHB, You L, He Y, Gin KYH. Quantification of cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a in cyanobacterial bloom freshwater using direct injection/SPE coupled with UPLC-MS/MS. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 731:139014. [PMID: 32428751 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Analytical methods based on direct injection (DI) and solid phase extraction (SPE) coupled with ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC- MS/MS) were developed for the determination of anatoxin-a (ATX-a), cylindrospermopsin (CYN), and homoanatoxin-a (HATX-a) in freshwater samples impacted with cyanobacterial blooms. The presence of CYN in freshwater samples was detected and quantified based on direct injection method, while ATX-a and HATX-a could be determined by both DI and SPE-based methods. Matrix effects (ME) on the signal intensity of the cyanotoxins were systematically evaluated for both direct injection and SPE extract samples. CYN, ATX-a, and HATX-a suffered a significant suppression during UPLC-MS/MS. The selection of internal standards (ISs) for compensating/correcting the losses of target cyanotoxins during sample preparation and matrix effects in UPLC-MS/MS analyses were systematically evaluated. Acetaminophen-d4 (an isotopically labelled acetaminophen) is a suitable internal standard for correcting the ME on the signal intensity of ATX-a and HATX-a, while the use of L-phenylalanine-d5 or caffeine-d9 as IS for correcting ME of these toxins was not efficient, as expected. The method detection limit (MDL) for the target cyanotoxins ranged from 0.6 to 15 ng/L, which is sensitive enough to detect the presence of these toxins in cyanobacterial bloom freshwater. The developed methods were successfully applied for routine monitoring of the occurrence of these cyanotoxins in a local water body. Monitoring results depicted that ATX-a, CYN and HATX-a were ubiquitously detected in water samples, at concentrations ranging from 70 to 24,600 ng/L.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ngoc Han Tran
- Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Viet Nam; NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower, #15-02, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Yiwen Li
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, China
| | - Martin Reinhard
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, CA 94305, USA
| | - Kwan Chien Goh
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower, #15-02, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Nur Hanisah Binte Sukarji
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower, #15-02, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Luhua You
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower, #15-02, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Yiliang He
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Karina Yew-Hoong Gin
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Create Tower, #15-02, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
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Filatova D, Núñez O, Farré M. Ultra-Trace Analysis of Cyanotoxins by Liquid Chromatography Coupled to High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12040247. [PMID: 32290413 PMCID: PMC7232229 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing frequency of episodes of harmful algal blooms of cyanobacterial origin is a risk to ecosystems and human health. The main human hazard may arise from drinking water supply and recreational water use. For this reason, efficient multiclass analytical methods are needed to assess the level of cyanotoxins in water reservoirs and tackle these problems. This work describes the development of a fast, sensitive, and robust analytical method for multiclass cyanotoxins determination based on dual solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedure using a polymeric cartridge, Oasis HLB (Waters Corporation, Milford, MA, USA), and a graphitized non-porous carbon cartridge, SupelcleanTM ENVI-CarbTM (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (SPE-UHPLC-HRMS). This method enabled the analysis of cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a, nodularin, and seven microcystins (MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR, MC-LA, MC-LY, MC-LW, MC-LF). The method limits of detection (MLOD) of the validated approach were between 4 and 150 pg/L. The analytical method was applied to assess the presence of the selected toxins in 21 samples collected in three natural water reservoirs in the Ter River in Catalonia (NE of Spain) used to produce drinking water for Barcelona city (Spain).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Filatova
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, 08034 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Oscar Núñez
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain;
- Serra Húnter Professor, Generalitat de Catalunya, 08007 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marinella Farré
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, 08034 Barcelona, Spain;
- Correspondence:
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Haddad SP, Bobbitt JM, Taylor RB, Lovin LM, Conkle JL, Chambliss CK, Brooks BW. Determination of microcystins, nodularin, anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin, and saxitoxin in water and fish tissue using isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1599:66-74. [PMID: 30961962 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.03.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2018] [Revised: 02/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria can form dense blooms under specific environmental conditions, and some species produce secondary metabolites known as cyanotoxins, which present significant risks to public health and the environment. Identifying toxins produced by cyanobacteria present in surface water and fish is critical to ensuring high quality food and water for consumption, and protectionn of recreational uses. Current analytical screening methods typically focus on one class of cyanotoxins in a single matrix and rarely include saxitoxin. Thus, a cross-class screening method for microcystins, nodularin, anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin, and saxitoxin was developed to examine target analytes in environmental water and fish tissue. This was done, due to the broad range of cyanotoxin physicochemical properties, by pairing two extraction and separation techniques to improve isolation and detection. For the first time a zwitterionic hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography column was evaluated to separate anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin, and saxitoxin, demonstrating greater sensitivity for all three compounds over previous techniques. Further, the method for microcystins, nodularin, anatoxin-a, and cylindrospermopsin were validated using isotopically labeled internal standards, again for the first time, resulting in improved compensation for recovery bias and matrix suppression. Optimized extractions for water and fish tissue can be extended to other congeners in the future. These improved separation and isotope dilution techniques are a launching point for more complex, non-targeted analyses, with preliminary targeted screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel P Haddad
- Department of Environmental Science, Center for Reservoir and Aquatic Systems Research, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798, USA
| | - Jonathan M Bobbitt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798, USA
| | - Raegyn B Taylor
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798, USA
| | - Lea M Lovin
- Department of Environmental Science, Center for Reservoir and Aquatic Systems Research, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798, USA
| | - Jeremy L Conkle
- Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, TX, 78412, USA
| | - C Kevin Chambliss
- Department of Environmental Science, Center for Reservoir and Aquatic Systems Research, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798, USA
| | - Bryan W Brooks
- Department of Environmental Science, Center for Reservoir and Aquatic Systems Research, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798, USA; Institute of Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, Waco, TX, 76798, USA.
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10
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Picardo M, Filatova D, Nuñez O, Farré M. Recent advances in the detection of natural toxins in freshwater environments. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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11
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First observation of microcystin- and anatoxin-a-producing cyanobacteria in the easternmost part of the Gulf of Finland (the Baltic Sea). Toxicon 2019; 157:18-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Christophoridis C, Zervou SK, Manolidi K, Katsiapi M, Moustaka-Gouni M, Kaloudis T, Triantis TM, Hiskia A. Occurrence and diversity of cyanotoxins in Greek lakes. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17877. [PMID: 30552354 PMCID: PMC6294760 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35428-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxic cyanobacteria occur in Greek surface water bodies. However, studies on the occurrence of cyanotoxins (CTs) are often limited to mainly microcystins (MCs), with use of screening methods, such as ELISA, that are not conclusive of the chemical structure of the CT variants and can be subject to false positive results. A multi-lake survey in Greece (14 lakes) was conducted in water and biomass, targeted to a wide range of multi-class CTs including MCs, nodularin-R (NOD), cylindrospermopsin (CYN), anatoxin-a (ANA-a) and saxitoxins (STXs), using multi-class/variant LC-MS/MS analytical workflows, achieving sensitive detection, definitive identification and accurate quantitation. A wide variety of CTs (CYN, ANA-a, STX, neoSTX, dmMC-RR, MC-RR, MC-YR, MC-HtyR, dm3MC-LR, MC-LR, MC-HilR, MC-WR, MC-LA, MC-LY, MC-LW and MC-LF), were detected, with MCs being the most commonly occurring. In biomass, MC-RR was the most abundant toxin, reaching 754 ng mg−1 dw, followed by MC-LR (458 ng mg−1 dw). CYN and ANA-a were detected for the first time in the biomass of Greek lakes at low concentrations and STXs in lakes Trichonis, Vistonis and Petron. The abundance and diversity of CTs were also evaluated in relation to recreational health risks, in a case study with a proven history of MCs (Lake Kastoria).
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophoros Christophoridis
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patr. Grigoriou E' & Neapoleos 27, 15341, Athens, Greece
| | - Sevasti-Kiriaki Zervou
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patr. Grigoriou E' & Neapoleos 27, 15341, Athens, Greece
| | - Korina Manolidi
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patr. Grigoriou E' & Neapoleos 27, 15341, Athens, Greece
| | - Matina Katsiapi
- School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Maria Moustaka-Gouni
- School of Biology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Triantafyllos Kaloudis
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patr. Grigoriou E' & Neapoleos 27, 15341, Athens, Greece.,Water Quality Control Department, Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company - EYDAP SA, Athens, Greece
| | - Theodoros M Triantis
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patr. Grigoriou E' & Neapoleos 27, 15341, Athens, Greece
| | - Anastasia Hiskia
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patr. Grigoriou E' & Neapoleos 27, 15341, Athens, Greece.
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Dispersive magnetic immunoaffinity extraction. Anatoxin-a determination. J Chromatogr A 2017; 1529:57-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.10.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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14
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Chernova E, Sidelev S, Russkikh I, Voyakina E, Babanazarova O, Romanov R, Kotovshchikov A, Mazur-Marzec H. Dolichospermum and Aphanizomenon as neurotoxins producers in some Russian freshwaters. Toxicon 2017; 130:47-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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15
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Zervou SK, Christophoridis C, Kaloudis T, Triantis TM, Hiskia A. New SPE-LC-MS/MS method for simultaneous determination of multi-class cyanobacterial and algal toxins. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2017; 323:56-66. [PMID: 27453259 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial and algal toxins comprise a large group of harmful metabolites, belonging to different chemical classes, with a variety of chemical structures, physicochemical properties and toxic activities. In this study, a fast, simple and sensitive analytical method was developed for the simultaneous determination of multi-class cyanobacterial and algal toxins in water. The target compounds were: Cylindrospermopsin, Anatoxin-a, Nodularin, 12 Microcystins ([D-Asp3]MC-RR, MC-RR, MC-YR, MC-HtyR, [D-Asp3]MC-LR, MC-LR, MC-HilR, MC-WR, MC-LA, MC-LY, MC-LW and MC-LF), Okadaic acid and Domoic acid. Analytes were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A dual Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) cartridge assembly was applied for the extraction of target compounds from water. Optimized SPE parameters included cartridge material, initial sample pH, sequence of the cartridges in the SPE assembly as well as composition and volume of the elution solvent. The method was validated, providing acceptable mean recoveries and reproducibility for most analytes. Limits of detection were at the ngL-1 level. The method was successfully applied in real lake water samples from Greece, where a wide range of Microcystins were detected for the first time, at concentrations ranging from 0.034 to 63μgL-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sevasti-Kiriaki Zervou
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patriarchou Grigoriou & Neapoleos, 15341 Athens, Greece
| | - Christophoros Christophoridis
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patriarchou Grigoriou & Neapoleos, 15341 Athens, Greece
| | - Triantafyllos Kaloudis
- Water Quality Department, Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company-EYDAP SA, Athens, Greece
| | - Theodoros M Triantis
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patriarchou Grigoriou & Neapoleos, 15341 Athens, Greece
| | - Anastasia Hiskia
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Patriarchou Grigoriou & Neapoleos, 15341 Athens, Greece.
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16
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Rodriguez I, Rodriguez C, Alfonso A, Otero P, Meyer T, Breitenbach U, Botana LM. Toxin profile in samples collected in fresh and brackish water in Germany. Toxicon 2015; 91:35-44. [PMID: 25448386 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Revised: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The simultaneous detection of cyanotoxins is an important issue in order to prevent intoxications. In the present paper an Ultra Performance liquid Chromatography tandem mass spectrometry UPLC-MS/MS method was developed in order to simultaneously identify and quantify cylindrospermopsin (CYN), several microcystins (MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR) and some anatoxin-a (ATX-a) analogues. By using this new method all these toxins can be quickly separate. In addition the amino acid phenylalanine (Phe) can also be separate and therefore misidentifications with ATX-a can be avoided. By using this new method the presence of these toxins was studied in samples collected in several German localizations within the sampling program of the European Project μAqua (Universal microarrays for the evaluation of fresh-water quality based on detection of pathogens and their toxins). In these conditions, several ATX-a analogues, Phe, MC-LR and MC-RR were reported in samples collected.
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17
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Roy-Lachapelle A, Solliec M, Sinotte M, Deblois C, Sauvé S. High resolution/accurate mass (HRMS) detection of anatoxin-a in lake water using LDTD-APCI coupled to a Q-Exactive mass spectrometer. Talanta 2014; 132:836-44. [PMID: 25476385 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A new innovative analytical method combining ultra-fast analysis time with high resolution/accurate mass detection was developed to eliminate the misidentification of anatoxin-a (ANA-a), a cyanobacterial toxin, from the natural amino acid phenylalanine (PHE). This was achieved by using the laser diode thermal desorption-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (LDTD-APCI) coupled to the Q-Exactive, a high resolution/accurate mass spectrometer (HRMS). This novel combination, the LDTD-APCI-HRMS, allowed for an ultra-fast analysis time (<15 s/sample). A comparison of two different acquisition modes (full scan and targeted ion fragmentation) was made to determine the most rigorous analytical method using the LDTD-APCI interface. Method development focused toward selectivity and sensitivity improvement to reduce the possibility of false positives and to lower detection limits. The Q-Exactive mass spectrometer operates with resolving powers between 17500 and 140000 FWHM (m/z 200). Nevertheless, a resolution of 17500FWHM is enough to dissociate ANA-a and PHE signals. Mass accuracy was satisfactory with values below 1 ppm reaching precision to the fourth decimal. Internal calibration with standard addition was achieved with the isotopically-labeled (D5) phenylalanine with good linearity (R(2)>0.999). Enhancement of signal to noise ratios relative to a standard triple-quadrupole method was demonstrated with lower detection and quantification limit values of 0.2 and 0.6 μg/L using the Q-Exactive. Accuracy and interday/intraday relative standard deviations were below 15%. The new method was applied to 8 different lake water samples with signs of cyanobacterial blooms. This work demonstrates the possibility of using an ultra-fast LDTD-APCI sample introduction system with an HRMS hybrid instrument for quantitative purposes with high selectivity in complex environmental matrices.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Morgan Solliec
- Department of Chemistry, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Marc Sinotte
- Direction du Suivi de l'État de l'Environnement (DSEE), Ministère du développement durable, de l'environnement et de lutte aux changements climatiques (MDDELCC), Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Christian Deblois
- Centre d'expertise en analyse environnementale (CEAEQ), Ministère du développement durable, de l'environnement et de lutte aux changements climatiques (MDDELCC), Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Sébastien Sauvé
- Department of Chemistry, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada.
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18
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Biosynthesis of anatoxin-a and analogues (anatoxins) in cyanobacteria. Toxicon 2014; 91:15-22. [PMID: 25108149 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Freshwater cyanobacteria produce secondary metabolites that are toxic to humans and animals, the so-called cyanotoxins. Among them, anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a are potent neurotoxins that are agonists of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. These alkaloids provoke a rapid death if ingested at low doses. Recently, the cluster of genes responsible for the biosynthesis of these toxins, the ana cluster, has been identified in Oscillatoria sp. PCC 6506, and a biosynthetic pathway was proposed. This biosynthesis was reconstituted in vitro using purified enzymes confirming the predicted pathway. One of the enzymes, AnaB a prolyl-acyl carrier protein oxidase, was crystallized and its three dimensional structure solved confirming its reaction mechanism. Three other ana clusters have now been identified and sequenced in other cyanobacteria. These clusters show similarities and some differences suggesting a common evolutionary origin. In particular, the cluster from Cylindrospermum stagnale PCC 7417, possesses an extra gene coding for an F420-dependent oxidoreductase that is likely involved in the biosynthesis of dihydroanatoxin-a. This review summarizes all these new data and discusses them in relation to the production of anatoxins in the environment.
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Merel S, Walker D, Chicana R, Snyder S, Baurès E, Thomas O. State of knowledge and concerns on cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2013; 59:303-27. [PMID: 23892224 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 480] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Revised: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous microorganisms considered as important contributors to the formation of Earth's atmosphere and nitrogen fixation. However, they are also frequently associated with toxic blooms. Indeed, the wide range of hepatotoxins, neurotoxins and dermatotoxins synthesized by these bacteria is a growing environmental and public health concern. This paper provides a state of the art on the occurrence and management of harmful cyanobacterial blooms in surface and drinking water, including economic impacts and research needs. Cyanobacterial blooms usually occur according to a combination of environmental factors e.g., nutrient concentration, water temperature, light intensity, salinity, water movement, stagnation and residence time, as well as several other variables. These environmental variables, in turn, have promoted the evolution and biosynthesis of strain-specific, gene-controlled metabolites (cyanotoxins) that are often harmful to aquatic and terrestrial life, including humans. Cyanotoxins are primarily produced intracellularly during the exponential growth phase. Release of toxins into water can occur during cell death or senescence but can also be due to evolutionary-derived or environmentally-mediated circumstances such as allelopathy or relatively sudden nutrient limitation. Consequently, when cyanobacterial blooms occur in drinking water resources, treatment has to remove both cyanobacteria (avoiding cell lysis and subsequent toxin release) and aqueous cyanotoxins previously released. Cells are usually removed with limited lysis by physical processes such as clarification or membrane filtration. However, aqueous toxins are usually removed by both physical retention, through adsorption on activated carbon or reverse osmosis, and chemical oxidation, through ozonation or chlorination. While the efficient oxidation of the more common cyanotoxins (microcystin, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin and saxitoxin) has been extensively reported, the chemical and toxicological characterization of their by-products requires further investigation. In addition, future research should also investigate the removal of poorly considered cyanotoxins (β-methylamino-alanine, lyngbyatoxin or aplysiatoxin) as well as the economic impact of blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Merel
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, 1133 James E. Rogers Way, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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Bogialli S, Nigro di Gregorio F, Lucentini L, Ferretti E, Ottaviani M, Ungaro N, Abis PP, Cannarozzi de Grazia M. Management of a toxic cyanobacterium bloom (Planktothrix rubescens) affecting an Italian drinking water basin: a case study. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:574-583. [PMID: 23167492 DOI: 10.1021/es302260p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
An extraordinary bloom of Planktothrix rubescens, which can produce microcystins (MCs), was observed in early 2009 in the Occhito basin, used even as a source of drinking water in Southern Italy. Several activities, coordinated by a task force, were implemented to assess and manage the risk associated to drinking water contaminated by cyanobacteria. Main actions were: evaluation of analytical protocols for screening and confirmatory purpose, monitoring the drinking water supply chain, training of operators, a dedicated web site for risk communication. ELISA assay was considered suitable for health authorities as screening method for MCs and to optimize frequency of sampling according to alert levels, and as internal control for the water supplier. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method able to quantify 9 MCs was optimized with the aim of supporting health authorities in a comprehensive risk evaluation based on the relative toxicity of different congeners. Short, medium, and long-term corrective actions were implemented to mitigate the health risk. Preoxidation with chlorine dioxide followed by flocculation and settling have been shown to be effective in removing MCs in the water treatment plant. Over two years, despite the high levels of cyanobacteria (up to 160 × 10(6) cells/L) and MCs (28.4 μg/L) initially reached in surface waters, the drinking water distribution was never limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Bogialli
- Department of Chemistry, University of Padua, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
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21
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Røen BT, Sellevåg SR, Lundanes E. On-line solid phase extraction-liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry for trace determination of nerve agent degradation products in water samples. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 761:109-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.11.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Revised: 11/25/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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22
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Mann S, Cohen M, Chapuis-Hugon F, Pichon V, Mazmouz R, Méjean A, Ploux O. Synthesis, configuration assignment, and simultaneous quantification by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, of dihydroanatoxin-a and dihydrohomoanatoxin-a together with the parent toxins, in axenic cyanobacterial strains and in environmental samples. Toxicon 2012; 60:1404-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Revised: 09/04/2012] [Accepted: 10/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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23
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Wood SA, Holland PT, MacKenzie L. Development of solid phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) for monitoring anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a in river water. CHEMOSPHERE 2011; 82:888-94. [PMID: 21074244 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.10.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2010] [Revised: 10/19/2010] [Accepted: 10/20/2010] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Sampling and monitoring for cyanotoxins can be problematic as concentrations change with environmental and hydrological conditions. Current sampling practices (e.g. grab samples) provide data on cyanotoxins present only at one point in time and may miss areas or times of highest risk. Recent research has identified the widespread distribution of anatoxin-producing benthic cyanobacteria in rivers highlighting the need for development of effective sampling techniques. In this study we evaluated the potential of an in situ method known as solid phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) for collecting and concentrating anatoxin-a (ATX) and homoanatoxin-a (HTX) in river water. Fifteen different adsorption substrates were screened for efficiency of ATX uptake, nine of which retained high proportions (>70%) of ATX. Four substrates were then selected for a 24-h trial in a SPATT bag format in the laboratory. The greatest decrease in ATX in the water was observed with powdered activated carbon (PAC) and Strata-X (a polymeric resin) SPATT bags. A 3-d field study in a river containing toxic benthic cyanobacterial mats was undertaken using PAC and Strata-X SPATT bags. ATX and HTX were detected in all SPATT bags. Surface grab samples were taken throughout the field study and ATX and HTX were only detected in one of the water samples, highlighting the limitations of this currently used method. Both Strata-X and PAC were found to be effective absorbent substrates. PAC has the advantage that it is cheap and readily available and appears to continue to sorb toxins over longer periods than Strata-X. SPATT has the potential to be integrated into current cyanobacterial monitoring programmes and would be a very useful and economical tool for early warning of ATX and HTX contamination in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
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