1
|
Macdonald JK, Mehta AS, Drake RR, Angel PM. Molecular analysis of the extracellular microenvironment: from form to function. FEBS Lett 2024; 598:602-620. [PMID: 38509768 PMCID: PMC11049795 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) proteome represents an important component of the tissue microenvironment that controls chemical flux and induces cell signaling through encoded structure. The analysis of the ECM represents an analytical challenge through high levels of post-translational modifications, protease-resistant structures, and crosslinked, insoluble proteins. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the analytical challenges involved in addressing the complexities of spatially profiling the extracellular matrix proteome. A synopsis of the process of synthesizing the ECM structure, detailing inherent chemical complexity, is included to present the scope of the analytical challenge. Current chromatographic and spatial techniques addressing these challenges are detailed. Capabilities for multimodal multiplexing with cellular populations are discussed with a perspective on developing a holistic view of disease processes that includes both the cellular and extracellular microenvironment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jade K Macdonald
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
| | - Anand S Mehta
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
| | - Richard R Drake
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
| | - Peggi M. Angel
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Morse CN, Hite CC, Wamer NC, Gadient JN, Baki G, Prestwich EG. MALDI-TOF imaging analysis of benzalkonium chloride penetration in ex vivo human skin. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0297992. [PMID: 38330048 PMCID: PMC10852276 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0297992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BZK), alkyldimethylbenzlamonium chloride, is a cationic surfactant that is used as an antiseptic. BZK is classified as a quaternary ammonium compound composed of molecules of several alkyl chains of differing lengths, that dictate its effectiveness towards different microbes. As a result, BZK has become one of the most used preservatives in antibacterial solutions. Despite its widespread use, it is not clear whether BZK penetrates human skin. To answer this question, BZK treated skin was analyzed using matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry imaging. Solutions containing BZK and differing excipients, including citric acid, caprylyl glycol, and vitamin E, were applied ex vivo to excised human skin using Franz diffusion cells. Treated skin was embedded in gelatin and sectioned prior to MALDI-TOF imaging. BZK penetrates through the epidermis and into the dermis, and the penetration depth was significantly altered by pH and additives in tested solutions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chase N. Morse
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Collin C. Hite
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Nathan C. Wamer
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jennifer N. Gadient
- Natural Sciences and Mathematics Instrumentation Center, The College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Gabriella Baki
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Erin G. Prestwich
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Moore JL, Charkoftaki G. A Guide to MALDI Imaging Mass Spectrometry for Tissues. J Proteome Res 2023; 22:3401-3417. [PMID: 37877579 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.3c00167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
Imaging mass spectrometry is a well-established technology that can easily and succinctly communicate the spatial localization of molecules within samples. This review communicates the recent advances in the field, with a specific focus on matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) applied on tissues. The general sample preparation strategies for different analyte classes are explored, including special considerations for sample types (fresh frozen or formalin-fixed,) strategies for various analytes (lipids, metabolites, proteins, peptides, and glycans) and how multimodal imaging strategies can leverage the strengths of each approach is mentioned. This work explores appropriate experimental design approaches and standardization of processes needed for successful studies, as well as the various data analysis platforms available to analyze data and their strengths. The review concludes with applications of imaging mass spectrometry in various fields, with a focus on medical research, and some examples from plant biology and microbe metabolism are mentioned, to illustrate the breadth and depth of MALDI IMS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Moore
- Department of Proteomics, Discovery Life Sciences, Huntsville, Alabama 35806, United States
| | - Georgia Charkoftaki
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Matrikines as mediators of tissue remodelling. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 185:114240. [PMID: 35378216 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins confer biomechanical properties, maintain cell phenotype and mediate tissue repair (via release of sequestered cytokines and proteases). In contrast to intracellular proteomes, where proteins are monitored and replaced over short time periods, many ECM proteins function for years (decades in humans) without replacement. The longevity of abundant ECM proteins, such as collagen I and elastin, leaves them vulnerable to damage accumulation and their host organs prone to chronic, age-related diseases. However, ECM protein fragmentation can potentially produce peptide cytokines (matrikines) which may exacerbate and/or ameliorate age- and disease-related ECM remodelling. In this review, we discuss ECM composition, function and degradation and highlight examples of endogenous matrikines. We then critically and comprehensively analyse published studies of matrix-derived peptides used as topical skin treatments, before considering the potential for improvements in the discovery and delivery of novel matrix-derived peptides to skin and internal organs. From this, we conclude that while the translational impact of matrix-derived peptide therapeutics is evident, the mechanisms of action of these peptides are poorly defined. Further, well-designed, multimodal studies are required.
Collapse
|
5
|
Lee PY, Yeoh Y, Omar N, Pung YF, Lim LC, Low TY. Molecular tissue profiling by MALDI imaging: recent progress and applications in cancer research. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2021; 58:513-529. [PMID: 34615421 DOI: 10.1080/10408363.2021.1942781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) imaging is an emergent technology that has been increasingly adopted in cancer research. MALDI imaging is capable of providing global molecular mapping of the abundance and spatial information of biomolecules directly in the tissues without labeling. It enables the characterization of a wide spectrum of analytes, including proteins, peptides, glycans, lipids, drugs, and metabolites and is well suited for both discovery and targeted analysis. An advantage of MALDI imaging is that it maintains tissue integrity, which allows correlation with histological features. It has proven to be a valuable tool for probing tumor heterogeneity and has been increasingly applied to interrogate molecular events associated with cancer. It provides unique insights into both the molecular content and spatial details that are not accessible by other techniques, and it has allowed considerable progress in the field of cancer research. In this review, we first provide an overview of the MALDI imaging workflow and approach. We then highlight some useful applications in various niches of cancer research, followed by a discussion of the challenges, recent developments and future prospect of this technique in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pey Yee Lee
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute (UMBI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Yeelon Yeoh
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute (UMBI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nursyazwani Omar
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute (UMBI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Yuh-Fen Pung
- Division of Biomedical Science, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Lay Cheng Lim
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University (IMU), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Teck Yew Low
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute (UMBI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Chen C, Laviolette SR, Whitehead SN, Renaud JB, Yeung KKC. Imaging of Neurotransmitters and Small Molecules in Brain Tissues Using Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry Assisted with Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2021; 32:1065-1079. [PMID: 33783203 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.1c00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Inorganic nanostructured materials such as silicon, carbon, metals, and metal oxides have been explored as matrices of low-background signals to assist the laser desorption/ionization (LDI) mass spectrometric (MS) analysis of small molecules, but their applications for imaging of small molecules in biological tissues remain limited in the literature. Titanium dioxide is one of the known nanoparticles (NP) that can effectively assist LDI MS imaging of low molecular weight molecules (LMWM). TiO2 NP is commercially available as dispersions, which can be applied using a chemical solution sprayer. However, aggregation of NP can occur in the dispersions, and the aggregated NP can slowly clog the sprayer nozzle. In this work, the use of zinc oxide (ZnO) NP for LDI MS imaging is investigated as a superior alternative due to its dissolution in acidic pH. ZnO NP was found to deliver similar or better results in the imaging of LMWM in comparison to TiO2 NP. The regular acid washes were effective in minimizing clogging and maintaining high reproducibility. High-quality images of mouse sagittal and rat coronal tissue sections were obtained. Ions were detected predominately as Na+ or K+ adducts in the positive ion mode. The number of LMWM detected with ZnO NP was similar to that obtained with TiO2 NP, and only a small degree of specificity was observed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Justin B Renaud
- London Research and Development Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, ON N5 V 4T3, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Jayathirtha M, Dupree EJ, Manzoor Z, Larose B, Sechrist Z, Neagu AN, Petre BA, Darie CC. Mass Spectrometric (MS) Analysis of Proteins and Peptides. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2020; 22:92-120. [PMID: 32713333 DOI: 10.2174/1389203721666200726223336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The human genome is sequenced and comprised of ~30,000 genes, making humans just a little bit more complicated than worms or flies. However, complexity of humans is given by proteins that these genes code for because one gene can produce many proteins mostly through alternative splicing and tissue-dependent expression of particular proteins. In addition, post-translational modifications (PTMs) in proteins greatly increase the number of gene products or protein isoforms. Furthermore, stable and transient interactions between proteins, protein isoforms/proteoforms and PTM-ed proteins (protein-protein interactions, PPI) add yet another level of complexity in humans and other organisms. In the past, all of these proteins were analyzed one at the time. Currently, they are analyzed by a less tedious method: mass spectrometry (MS) for two reasons: 1) because of the complexity of proteins, protein PTMs and PPIs and 2) because MS is the only method that can keep up with such a complex array of features. Here, we discuss the applications of mass spectrometry in protein analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Madhuri Jayathirtha
- Biochemistry & Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY, United States
| | - Emmalyn J Dupree
- Biochemistry & Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY, United States
| | - Zaen Manzoor
- Biochemistry & Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY, United States
| | - Brianna Larose
- Biochemistry & Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY, United States
| | - Zach Sechrist
- Biochemistry & Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY, United States
| | - Anca-Narcisa Neagu
- Laboratory of Animal Histology, Faculty of Biology, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Iasi, Romania
| | - Brindusa Alina Petre
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, Al. I. Cuza University of Iasi, Iasi, Romania, Center for Fundamental Research and Experimental Development in Translation Medicine - TRANSCEND, Regional Institute of Oncology, Iasi, Romania
| | - Costel C Darie
- Biochemistry & Proteomics Group, Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Avenue, Potsdam, NY, United States
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Castellanos A, Hernandez MG, Tomic-Canic M, Jozic I, Fernandez-Lima F. Multimodal, in Situ Imaging of Ex Vivo Human Skin Reveals Decrease of Cholesterol Sulfate in the Neoepithelium during Acute Wound Healing. Anal Chem 2019; 92:1386-1394. [PMID: 31789498 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Skin repair is a significant aspect of human health. While the makeup of healthy stratum corneum and epidermis is generally understood, the mobilization of molecular components during skin repair remains largely unknown. In the present work, we utilize multimodal, in situ, mass spectrometry, and immunofluorescence imaging for the characterization of newly formed epidermis, following an initial acute wound for the first 96 h of epithelization. In particular, TOF-SIMS and confirmatory MALDI FT-ICR MS (/MS) analysis permitted the mapping of several lipid classes, including phospholipids, neutral lipids, cholesterol, ceramides, and free fatty acids. Endogenous lipid species were localized in discrete epidermal skin layers, including the stratum corneum (SC), stratum granulosum (SG), stratum basale (SB), and dermis. Experiments revealed that healthy re-epithelializing skin is characterized by diminished cholesterol sulfate signal along the stratum corneum toward the migrating epithelial tongue. The spatial distribution and relative abundances of cholesterol sulfate are reported and correlated with the healing time. The multimodal imaging approach enabled in situ high-confidence chemical mapping based on accurate mass and fragmentation pattern of molecular components. The use of postanalysis immunofluorescence imaging from the same tissue confirmed the localization of endogenous lipid species and Filaggrin and Cav-1 proteins at high spatial resolution (approximately a few microns).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Castellanos
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Florida International University , 11200 SW Eighth Street, AHC4-233 , Miami , Florida 33199 , United States
| | - Mario Gomez Hernandez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Florida International University , 11200 SW Eighth Street, AHC4-233 , Miami , Florida 33199 , United States
| | - Marjana Tomic-Canic
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology & Cutaneous Surgery , University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB 6056 , Miami , Florida 33136 , United States
| | - Ivan Jozic
- Wound Healing and Regenerative Medicine Research Program, Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology & Cutaneous Surgery , University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , 1600 NW 10th Avenue, RMSB 6056 , Miami , Florida 33136 , United States
| | - Francisco Fernandez-Lima
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Florida International University , 11200 SW Eighth Street, AHC4-233 , Miami , Florida 33199 , United States.,Biomolecular Sciences Institute , Florida International University , Miami , Florida 33199 , United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Application of Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry Imaging for Food Analysis. Foods 2019; 8:foods8120633. [PMID: 31810360 PMCID: PMC6963588 DOI: 10.3390/foods8120633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Food contains various compounds, and there are many methods available to analyze each of these components. However, the large amounts of low-molecular-weight metabolites in food, such as amino acids, organic acids, vitamins, lipids, and toxins, make it difficult to analyze the spatial distribution of these molecules. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) imaging is a two-dimensional ionization technology that allows the detection of small metabolites in tissue sections without requiring purification, extraction, separation, or labeling. The application of MALDI-MS imaging in food analysis improves the visualization of these compounds to identify not only the nutritional content but also the geographical origin of the food. In this review, we provide an overview of some recent applications of MALDI-MS imaging, demonstrating the advantages and prospects of this technology compared to conventional approaches. Further development and enhancement of MALDI-MS imaging is expected to offer great benefits to consumers, researchers, and food producers with respect to breeding improvement, traceability, the development of value-added foods, and improved safety assessments.
Collapse
|
10
|
Mezger STP, Mingels AMA, Bekers O, Cillero-Pastor B, Heeren RMA. Trends in mass spectrometry imaging for cardiovascular diseases. Anal Bioanal Chem 2019; 411:3709-3720. [PMID: 30980090 PMCID: PMC6594994 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-019-01780-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2019] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is a widely established technology; however, in the cardiovascular research field, its use is still emerging. The technique has the advantage of analyzing multiple molecules without prior knowledge while maintaining the relation with tissue morphology. Particularly, MALDI-based approaches have been applied to obtain in-depth knowledge of cardiac (dys)function. Here, we discuss the different aspects of the MSI protocols, from sample handling to instrumentation used in cardiovascular research, and critically evaluate these methods. The trend towards structural lipid analysis, identification, and “top-down” protein MSI shows the potential for implementation in (pre)clinical research and complementing the diagnostic tests. Moreover, new insights into disease progression are expected and thereby contribute to the understanding of underlying mechanisms related to cardiovascular diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie T P Mezger
- Maastricht MultiModal Molecular Imaging (M4I) Institute, Division of Imaging Mass Spectrometry, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,Central Diagnostic Laboratory, Maastricht University Medical Center, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Alma M A Mingels
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, Maastricht University Medical Center, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Otto Bekers
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, Maastricht University Medical Center, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Berta Cillero-Pastor
- Maastricht MultiModal Molecular Imaging (M4I) Institute, Division of Imaging Mass Spectrometry, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Ron M A Heeren
- Maastricht MultiModal Molecular Imaging (M4I) Institute, Division of Imaging Mass Spectrometry, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Cole LM, Clench MR, Francese S. Sample Treatment for Tissue Proteomics in Cancer, Toxicology, and Forensics. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1073:77-123. [PMID: 31236840 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-12298-0_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Since the birth of proteomics science in the 1990, the number of applications and of sample preparation methods has grown exponentially, making a huge contribution to the knowledge in life science disciplines. Continuous improvements in the sample treatment strategies unlock and reveal the fine details of disease mechanisms, drug potency, and toxicity as well as enable new disciplines to be investigated such as forensic science.This chapter will cover the most recent developments in sample preparation strategies for tissue proteomics in three areas, namely, cancer, toxicology, and forensics, thus also demonstrating breath of application within the domain of health and well-being, pharmaceuticals, and secure societies.In particular, in the area of cancer (human tumor biomarkers), the most efficient and multi-informative proteomic strategies will be covered in relation to the subsequent application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) and liquid extraction surface analysis (LESA), due to their ability to provide molecular localization of tumor biomarkers albeit with different spatial resolution.With respect to toxicology, methodologies applied in toxicoproteomics will be illustrated with examples from its use in two important areas: the study of drug-induced liver injury (DILI) and studies of effects of chemical and environmental insults on skin, i.e., the effects of irritants, sensitizers, and ionizing radiation. Within this chapter, mainly tissue proteomics sample preparation methods for LC-MS/MS analysis will be discussed as (i) the use of LC-MS/MS is majorly represented in the research efforts of the bioanalytical community in this area and (ii) LC-MS/MS still is the gold standard for quantification studies.Finally, the use of proteomics will also be discussed in forensic science with respect to the information that can be recovered from blood and fingerprint evidence which are commonly encountered at the scene of the crime. The application of proteomic strategies for the analysis of blood and fingerprints is novel and proteomic preparation methods will be reported in relation to the subsequent use of mass spectrometry without any hyphenation. While generally yielding more information, hyphenated methods are often more laborious and time-consuming; since forensic investigations need quick turnaround, without compromising validity of the information, the prospect to develop methods for the application of quick forensic mass spectrometry techniques such as MALDI-MS (in imaging or profiling mode) is of great interest.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L M Cole
- Biomolecular Science Research Centre, Centre for Mass Spectrometry Imaging, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
| | - M R Clench
- Biomolecular Science Research Centre, Centre for Mass Spectrometry Imaging, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
| | - S Francese
- Biomolecular Science Research Centre, Centre for Mass Spectrometry Imaging, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Neagu AN. Proteome Imaging: From Classic to Modern Mass Spectrometry-Based Molecular Histology. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1140:55-98. [PMID: 31347042 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-15950-4_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In order to overcome the limitations of classic imaging in Histology during the actually era of multiomics, the multi-color "molecular microscope" by its emerging "molecular pictures" offers quantitative and spatial information about thousands of molecular profiles without labeling of potential targets. Healthy and diseased human tissues, as well as those of diverse invertebrate and vertebrate animal models, including genetically engineered species and cultured cells, can be easily analyzed by histology-directed MALDI imaging mass spectrometry. The aims of this review are to discuss a range of proteomic information emerging from MALDI mass spectrometry imaging comparative to classic histology, histochemistry and immunohistochemistry, with applications in biology and medicine, concerning the detection and distribution of structural proteins and biological active molecules, such as antimicrobial peptides and proteins, allergens, neurotransmitters and hormones, enzymes, growth factors, toxins and others. The molecular imaging is very well suited for discovery and validation of candidate protein biomarkers in neuroproteomics, oncoproteomics, aging and age-related diseases, parasitoproteomics, forensic, and ecotoxicology. Additionally, in situ proteome imaging may help to elucidate the physiological and pathological mechanisms involved in developmental biology, reproductive research, amyloidogenesis, tumorigenesis, wound healing, neural network regeneration, matrix mineralization, apoptosis and oxidative stress, pain tolerance, cell cycle and transformation under oncogenic stress, tumor heterogeneity, behavior and aggressiveness, drugs bioaccumulation and biotransformation, organism's reaction against environmental penetrating xenobiotics, immune signaling, assessment of integrity and functionality of tissue barriers, behavioral biology, and molecular origins of diseases. MALDI MSI is certainly a valuable tool for personalized medicine and "Eco-Evo-Devo" integrative biology in the current context of global environmental challenges.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anca-Narcisa Neagu
- Laboratory of Animal Histology, Faculty of Biology, "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University of Iasi, Iasi, Romania.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Imaging the distribution of skin lipids and topically applied compounds in human skin using mass spectrometry. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16683. [PMID: 30420715 PMCID: PMC6232133 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-34286-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The barrier functions of skin against water loss, microbial invasion and penetration of xenobiotics rely, in part, on the spatial distribution of the biomolecular constituents in the skin structure, particularly its horny layer (stratum corneum). However, all skin layers are important to describe normal and dysfunctional skin conditions, and to develop adapted therapies or skin care products. In this work, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) combined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to image the spatial distribution of a variety of molecular species, from stratum corneum down to dermis, in cross-section samples of human abdominal skin. The results demonstrate the expected localization of ceramide and saturated long-chain fatty acids in stratum corneum (SC) and cholesterol sulfate in the upper part of the viable epidermis. The localization of exogenous compounds is demonstrated by the detection and imaging of carvacrol (a constituent of oregano or thyme essential oil) and ceramide, after topical application onto ex vivo human skin. Carvacrol showed pronounced accumulation to triglyceride-containing structures in the deeper parts of dermis. In contrast, the exogenous ceramide was found to be localized in SC. Furthermore, the complementary character of this approach with classical ex vivo skin absorption analysis methods is demonstrated.
Collapse
|
14
|
O'Rourke MB, Djordjevic SP, Padula MP. The quest for improved reproducibility in MALDI mass spectrometry. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2018; 37:217-228. [PMID: 27420733 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Reproducibility has been one of the biggest hurdles faced when attempting to develop quantitative protocols for MALDI mass spectrometry. The heterogeneous nature of sample recrystallization has made automated sample acquisition somewhat "hit and miss" with manual intervention needed to ensure that all sample spots have been analyzed. In this review, we explore the last 30 years of literature and anecdotal evidence that has attempted to address and improve reproducibility in MALDI MS. Though many methods have been attempted, we have discovered a significant publication history surrounding the use of nitrocellulose as a substrate to improve homogeneity of crystal formation and therefore reproducibility. We therefore propose that this is the most promising avenue of research for developing a comprehensive and universal preparation protocol for quantitative MALDI MS analysis. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev 37:217-228, 2018.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B O'Rourke
- Proteomics Core Facility, University of Technology Sydney, Cnr Harris and Thomas St, Ultimo, New South Wales, 2007, Australia
| | - Steven P Djordjevic
- The iThree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, Cnr Harris and Thomas St, Ultimo, New South Wales, 2007, Australia
| | - Matthew P Padula
- Proteomics Core Facility, University of Technology Sydney, Cnr Harris and Thomas St, Ultimo, New South Wales, 2007, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Prentice BM, Caprioli RM, Vuiblet V. Label-free molecular imaging of the kidney. Kidney Int 2017; 92:580-598. [PMID: 28750926 PMCID: PMC6193761 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2017.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we will highlight technologies that enable scientists to study the molecular characteristics of tissues and/or cells without the need for antibodies or other labeling techniques. Specifically, we will focus on matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization imaging mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Boone M Prentice
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Mass Spectrometry Research Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Richard M Caprioli
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Departments of Pharmacology and Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA; Mass Spectrometry Research Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
| | - Vincent Vuiblet
- Biophotonic Laboratory, UMR CNRS 7369 URCA, Reims, France; Nephropathology, Department of Biopathology Laboratory, CHU de Reims, Reims, France; Nephrology and Renal Transplantation department, CHU de Reims, Reims, France.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
MALDI (matrix assisted laser desorption ionization) Imaging Mass Spectrometry (IMS) of skin: Aspects of sample preparation. Talanta 2017; 174:325-335. [PMID: 28738588 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
MALDI (matrix assisted laser desorption ionization) Imaging Mass Spectrometry (IMS) allows molecular analysis of biological materials making possible the identification and localization of molecules in tissues, and has been applied to address many questions on skin pathophysiology, as well as on studies about drug absorption and metabolism. Sample preparation for MALDI IMS is the most important part of the workflow, comprising specimen collection and preservation, tissue embedding, cryosectioning, washing, and matrix application. These steps must be carefully optimized for specific analytes of interest (lipids, proteins, drugs, etc.), representing a challenge for skin analysis. In this review, critical parameters for MALDI IMS sample preparation of skin samples will be described. In addition, specific applications of MALDI IMS of skin samples will be presented including wound healing, neoplasia, and infection.
Collapse
|
17
|
Organic matrices, ionic liquids, and organic matrices@nanoparticles assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. Trends Analyt Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
18
|
Rocha B, Cillero-Pastor B, Blanco FJ, Ruiz-Romero C. MALDI mass spectrometry imaging in rheumatic diseases. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2016; 1865:784-794. [PMID: 27742553 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2016.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2016] [Revised: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is a technique used to visualize the spatial distribution of biomolecules such as peptides, proteins, lipids or other organic compounds by their molecular masses. Among the different MSI strategies, MALDI-MSI provides a sensitive and label-free approach for imaging of a wide variety of protein or peptide biomarkers from the surface of tissue sections, being currently used in an increasing number of biomedical applications such as biomarker discovery and tissue classification. In the field of rheumatology, MALDI-MSI has been applied to date for the analysis of joint tissues such as synovial membrane or cartilage. This review summarizes the studies and key achievements obtained using MALDI-MSI to increase understanding on rheumatic pathologies and to describe potential diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers of these diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MALDI Imaging, edited by Dr. Corinna Henkel and Prof. Peter Hoffmann.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Rocha
- Proteomics Unit-ProteoRed/ISCIII, Rheumatology Group, INIBIC - Hospital Universitario de A Coruña, SERGAS, A Coruña, Spain
| | | | - Francisco J Blanco
- Proteomics Unit-ProteoRed/ISCIII, Rheumatology Group, INIBIC - Hospital Universitario de A Coruña, SERGAS, A Coruña, Spain; RIER-RED de Inflamación y Enfermedades Reumáticas, INIBIC-CHUAC, A Coruña, Spain.
| | - Cristina Ruiz-Romero
- Proteomics Unit-ProteoRed/ISCIII, Rheumatology Group, INIBIC - Hospital Universitario de A Coruña, SERGAS, A Coruña, Spain; CIBER-BBN Instituto de Salud Carlos III, INIBIC-CHUAC, A Coruña, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Heijs B, Holst S, Briaire-de Bruijn IH, van Pelt GW, de Ru AH, van Veelen PA, Drake RR, Mehta AS, Mesker WE, Tollenaar RA, Bovée JVMG, Wuhrer M, McDonnell LA. Multimodal Mass Spectrometry Imaging of N-Glycans and Proteins from the Same Tissue Section. Anal Chem 2016; 88:7745-53. [PMID: 27373711 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b01739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
On-tissue digestion matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) can be used to record spatially correlated molecular information from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue sections. In this work, we present the in situ multimodal analysis of N-linked glycans and proteins from the same FFPE tissue section. The robustness and applicability of the method are demonstrated for several tumors, including epithelial and mesenchymal tumor types. Major analytical aspects, such as lateral diffusion of the analyte molecules and differences in measurement sensitivity due to the additional sample preparation methods, have been investigated for both N-glycans and proteolytic peptides. By combining the MSI approach with extract analysis, we were also able to assess which mass spectral peaks generated by MALDI-MSI could be assigned to unique N-glycan and peptide identities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bram Heijs
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Stephanie Holst
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Gabi W van Pelt
- Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Arnoud H de Ru
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Peter A van Veelen
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Richard R Drake
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina 29425, United States
| | - Anand S Mehta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Drexel University , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19129, United States
| | - Wilma E Mesker
- Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rob A Tollenaar
- Department of Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Judith V M G Bovée
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Manfred Wuhrer
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Liam A McDonnell
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands.,Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center , Leiden, The Netherlands.,Fondazione Pisana per la Scienza ONLUS , Pisa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Lanzini J, Dargère D, Regazzetti A, Tebani A, Laprévote O, Auzeil N. Changing in lipid profile induced by the mutation of Foxn1 gene: A lipidomic analysis of Nude mice skin. Biochimie 2015; 118:234-43. [PMID: 26427556 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2015.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Nude mice carry a spontaneous mutation affecting the gene Foxn1 mainly expressed in the epidermis. This gene is involved in several skin functions, especially in the proliferation and the differentiation of keratinocytes which are key cells of epithelial barrier. The skin, a protective barrier for the body, is essentially composed of lipids. Taking into account these factors, we conducted a lipidomic study to search for any changes in lipid composition of skin possibly related to Foxn1 mutation. Lipids were extracted from skin biopsies of Nude and BALB/c mice to be analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to a high resolution mass spectrometer (HRMS). Multivariate and univariate data analyses were carried out to compare lipid extracts. Identification was performed using HRMS data, retention time and mass spectrometry fragmentation study. These results indicate that mutation of Foxn1 leads to significant modifications in the lipidome in Nude mice skin. An increase in cholesterol sulfate, phospholipids, sphingolipids and fatty acids associated with a decrease in glycerolipids suggest that the lipidome in mice skin is regulated by the Foxn1 gene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justine Lanzini
- UMR CNRS 8638, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Descartes, 4 Avenue de L'Observatoire, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Delphine Dargère
- UMR CNRS 8638, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Descartes, 4 Avenue de L'Observatoire, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Anne Regazzetti
- UMR CNRS 8638, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Descartes, 4 Avenue de L'Observatoire, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Abdellah Tebani
- UMR CNRS 8638, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Descartes, 4 Avenue de L'Observatoire, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Olivier Laprévote
- UMR CNRS 8638, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Descartes, 4 Avenue de L'Observatoire, 75006 Paris, France; AP-HP, Service de Toxicologie Biologique, Hôpital Lariboisière, 4 Rue Ambroise Paré, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France
| | - Nicolas Auzeil
- UMR CNRS 8638, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Descartes, 4 Avenue de L'Observatoire, 75006 Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
Pharmacodynamics and toxicodynamics are the study of the biochemical and physiological effects of therapeutic agents and toxicants and their mechanisms of action. MALDI-MS imaging offers great potential for the study of pharmaco/toxicodynamic responses in tissue owing is its ability to study multiple biomarkers simultaneously in a label-free manner. Here, existing examples of such studies examining anticancer drugs and topically applied treatments are described. Examination of the literature shows that the use of MS imaging in pharmaco/toxicodynamic studies is in fact quite low. The reasons for this are discussed and potential developments in the methodology that might lead to its further use are described.
Collapse
|
22
|
Heijs B, Carreira RJ, Tolner EA, de Ru AH, van den Maagdenberg AMJM, van Veelen PA, McDonnell LA. Comprehensive Analysis of the Mouse Brain Proteome Sampled in Mass Spectrometry Imaging. Anal Chem 2015; 87:1867-75. [DOI: 10.1021/ac503952q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bram Heijs
- Center
for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 2333ZA The Netherlands
| | - Ricardo J. Carreira
- Center
for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 2333ZA The Netherlands
| | - Else A. Tolner
- Department
of Neurology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 2333ZA The Netherlands
| | - Arnoud H. de Ru
- Department
of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 2333ZA The Netherlands
| | - Arn M. J. M. van den Maagdenberg
- Department
of Neurology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 2333ZA The Netherlands
- Department
of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 2333ZA The Netherlands
| | - Peter A. van Veelen
- Department
of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 2333ZA The Netherlands
| | - Liam A. McDonnell
- Center
for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, 2333ZA The Netherlands
- Fondazione Pisana
per la Scienza ONLUS, Pisa, 56121 Italy
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Crecelius AC, Schubert US, von Eggeling F. MALDI mass spectrometric imaging meets “omics”: recent advances in the fruitful marriage. Analyst 2015; 140:5806-20. [DOI: 10.1039/c5an00990a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometric imaging (MALDI MSI) is a method that allows the investigation of the molecular content of surfaces, in particular, tissues, within its morphological context.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A. C. Crecelius
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC)
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- 07743 Jena
- Germany
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM)
| | - U. S. Schubert
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC)
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- 07743 Jena
- Germany
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM)
| | - F. von Eggeling
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM)
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena
- 07743 Jena
- Germany
- Institute of Physical Chemistry
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Spengler
- Justus Liebig University Giessen, Institute of Inorganic and Analytical
Chemistry, Schubertstrasse
60, Building 16, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Abstract
To fully understand the drug mechanism of action of new chemical entities, pharmacologists need to acquire confident and precise data in pharmacokinetics and in pharmacodynamics and build strong pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationships. Target engagement in evaluating new chemical entities provides the basis for treatment efficacy. Classical technologies are sometimes limited or inefficient to provide these precise data; however, label-free MS imaging technology is able to provide these molecular features, spatial distributions, quantification and metabolomics data. Important considerations for imaging biological sections are described. Various applications in pharmacology are presented across different therapeutic areas, where MS imaging answers crucial drug discovery and preclinical development needs.
Collapse
|
26
|
Cillero-Pastor B, Heeren RMA. Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry Imaging for Peptide and Protein Analyses: A Critical Review of On-Tissue Digestion. J Proteome Res 2013; 13:325-35. [DOI: 10.1021/pr400743a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Berta Cillero-Pastor
- FOM Institute AMOLF, Biomolecular Imaging Mass Spectrometry (BIMS), AMOLF Science Park 104, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ron M. A. Heeren
- FOM Institute AMOLF, Biomolecular Imaging Mass Spectrometry (BIMS), AMOLF Science Park 104, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|