The influence of the shape of Au nanoparticles on the catalytic current of fructose dehydrogenase

Fire up Biosensor Technology to Assess the Vitality of Trees after Wildfires

The development of tools to quickly identify the fate of damaged trees after a stress event such as a wildfire is of great importance. In this context, an innovative approach to assess irreversible physiological damage in trees could help to support the planning of management decisions for disturbed sites to restore biodiversity, protect the environment and understand the adaptations of ecosystem functionality. The vitality of trees can be estimated by several physiological indicators, such as cambium activity and the amount of starch and soluble sugars, while the accumulation of ethanol in the cambial cells and phloem is considered an alarm sign of cell death. However, their determination requires time-consuming laboratory protocols, making the approach impractical in the field. Biosensors hold considerable promise for substantially advancing this field. The general objective of this review is to define a system for quantifying the plant vitality in forest areas exposed to fire. This review describes recent electrochemical biosensors that can detect plant molecules, focusing on biosensors for glucose, fructose, and ethanol as indicators of tree vitality.

Biohybrid materials comprising an artificial peroxidase and differently shaped gold nanoparticles

The immobilization of biocatalysts on inorganic supports allows the development of bio-nanohybrid materials with defined functional properties. Gold nanomaterials (AuNMs) are the main players in this field, due to their fascinating shape-dependent properties that account for their versatility. Even though incredible progress has been made in the preparation of AuNMs, few studies have been carried out to analyze the impact of particle morphology on the behavior of immobilized biocatalysts. Herein, the artificial peroxidase Fe(iii)-Mimochrome VI*a (FeMC6*a) was conjugated to two different anisotropic gold nanomaterials, nanorods (AuNRs) and triangular nanoprisms (AuNTs), to investigate how the properties of the nanosupport can affect the functional behavior of FeMC6*a. The conjugation of FeMC6*a to AuNMs was performed by a click-chemistry approach, using FeMC6*a modified with pegylated aza-dibenzocyclooctyne (FeMC6*a-PEG4@DBCO), which was allowed to react with azide-functionalized AuNRs and AuNTs, synthesized from citrate-capped AuNMs. To this end, a literature protocol for depleting CTAB from AuNRs was herein reported for the first time to prepare citrate-AuNTs. The overall results suggest that the nanomaterial shape influences the nanoconjugate functional properties. Besides giving new insights into the effect of the surfaces on the artificial peroxidase properties, these results open up the way for creating novel nanostructures with potential applications in the field of sensing devices.

Biocompatible Gold Nanoparticles-Modified Fluorine Doped Tin Oxide Electrode for the Fabrication of Enzyme-Free Glucose Sensor

This work demonstrates the use of jute stick extract as a reducing and stabilizing agent for the synthesis of spherical gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). In UV-Vis spectroscopy, peak at 550 nm was used to confirm the formation of AuNPs. The spherical surface morphology of AuNPs was determined through SEM and TEM analysis. While XRD investigation revealed the crystallinity of the prepared AuNPs. To ensure the biocompatibility of synthesized AuNPs, a bacterial investigation was conducted with negative results towards bacterial strain. The, modified FTO with AuNPs were able to detect glucose in CV analysis and the constructed sensor displayed a wide linear range of 50 μM to 40 mM with a detection limit of 20 μM. Scan rate analysis was performed to determine the charge transfer coefficient (0.42) and Tafel slope (102 mV/decade). Furthermore, the interfacial surface mechanism is illustrated to understand the interaction of glucose with the electrode surface in an alkaline medium and the product formation through the dehydrogenation and hydrolysis process. The prepared sensor also showed good stability, reproducibility, and anti-interference capabilities. In the case of real sample analysis, we used a blood serum sample. A low RSD value (<10 %) suggests the practical use of AuNPs/FTO in real-life applications.

A paper-based dual functional biosensor for safe and user-friendly point-of-care urine analysis

Safe, accurate, and reliable analysis of urinary biomarkers is clinically important for early detection and monitoring of the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD), as it has become one of the world's most prevalent non-communicable diseases. However, current technologies for measuring urinary biomarkers are either time-consuming and limited to well-equipped hospitals or lack the necessary sensitivity for quantitative analysis and post a health risk to frontline practitioners. Here we report a robust paper-based dual functional biosensor, which is integrated with the clinical urine sampling vial, for the simultaneous and quantitative analysis of pH and glucose in urine. The pH sensor was fabricated by electrochemically depositing IrOx onto a paper substrate using optimised parameters, which enabled an ultrahigh sensitivity of 71.58 mV pH-1. Glucose oxidase (GOx) was used in combination with an electrochemically deposited Prussian blue layer for the detection of glucose, and its performance was enhanced by gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), chitosan, and graphite composites, achieving a sensitivity of 1.5 μA mM-1. This dual function biosensor was validated using clinical urine samples, where a correlation coefficient of 0.96 for pH and 0.98 for glucose detection was achieved with commercial methods as references. More importantly, the urine sampling vial was kept sealed throughout the sample-to-result process, which minimised the health risk to frontline practitioners and simplified the diagnostic procedures. This diagnostic platform, therefore, holds high promise as a rapid, accurate, safe, and user-friendly point-of-care (POC) technology for the analysis of urinary biomarkers in frontline clinical settings.

Lab-made flexible third-generation fructose biosensors based on 0D-nanostructured transducers

Herein, we report a scalable benchtop electrode fabrication method to produce highly sensitive and flexible third-generation fructose dehydrogenase amperometric biosensors based on water-dispersed 0D-nanomaterials. The electrochemical platform was fabricated via Stencil-Printing (StPE) and insulated via xurography. Carbon black (CB) and mesoporous carbon (MS) were employed as 0D-nanomaterials promoting an efficient direct electron transfer (DET) between fructose dehydrogenase (FDH) and the transducer. Both nanomaterials were prepared in water-phase via a sonochemical approach. The nano-StPE exhibited enhanced electrocatalytic currents compared to conventional commercial electrodes. The enzymatic sensors were exploited for the determination of D-fructose in model solutions and various food and biological samples. StPE-CB and StPE-MS integrated biosensors showed appreciable sensitivity (∼150 μA cm-2 mM-1) with μmolar limit of detection (0.35 and 0.16 μM, respectively) and extended linear range (2-500 and 1-250 μM, respectively); the selectivity of the biosensors, ensured by the low working overpotential (+0.15 V), has been also demonstrated. Good accuracy (recoveries between 95 and 116%) and reproducibility (RSD ≤8.6%) were achieved for food and urine samples. The proposed approach because of manufacturing versatility and the electro-catalytic features of the water-nanostructured 0D-NMs opens new paths for affordable and customizable FDH-based bioelectronics.

Recent Advances in Electrochemical Enzyme-Based Biosensors for Food and Beverage Analysis

Food analysis and control are crucial aspects in food research and production in order to ensure quality and safety of food products. Electrochemical biosensors based on enzymes as the bioreceptors are emerging as promising tools for food analysis because of their high selectivity and sensitivity, short analysis time, and high-cost effectiveness in comparison to conventional methods. This review provides the readers with an overview of various electrochemical enzyme-based biosensors in food analysis, focusing on enzymes used for different applications in the analysis of sugars, alcohols, amino acids and amines, and organic acids, as well as mycotoxins and chemical contaminants. In addition, strategies to improve the performance of enzyme-based biosensors that have been reported over the last five years will be discussed. The challenges and future outlooks for the food sector are also presented.

Behind the Optimization of the Sensor Film: Bioconjugation of Triangular Gold Nanoparticles with Hemoproteins for Sensitivity Enhancement of Enzymatic Biosensors

Electrochemical biosensors are widely used in a multitude of applications, such as medical, nutrition, research, among other fields. These sensors have been historically used and have not undergone many changes in terms of the involved electrochemical processes. In this work, we propose a new approach on the immobilization and enhancement of the electrochemical properties of the sensing layers through the control and bioconjugation of hemoproteins (hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochrome C) on anisotropic gold nanoparticles (gold nanotriangles (AuNTs)). The hemeproteins and the AuNTs are mixed in a solution, resulting in stable bioconjugates that are deposited onto the electrode surface to obtain the biosensors. All the systems proposed herein exhibited direct well-defined redox responses, highlighting the key role of the AuNTs acting as mediators of such electron transfers. Several protein layers surrounding the AuNTs are electroactive, as demonstrated from the charge measured by cyclic voltammetry. The retention of the stability of the hemeproteins once they are part of the bioconjugates is evidenced towards the electrocatalytic reduction of hydrogen peroxide, oxygen, and nitrite. The parameters obtained for the proposed biosensors are similar or even lower than those previously reported for similar systems based on nanomaterials, and they exhibit attractive properties that make them potential candidates for the latest developments in the field of sensing devices.

Nanomaterials in bioelectrochemical devices: on applications enhancing their positive effect

Electrochemical biosensors and biofuel cells are finding an ever-increasing practical application due to several advantages. Biosensors are miniature measuring devices, which can be used for on-the-spot analyses, with small assay times and sample volumes. Biofuel cells have dual benefits of environmental cleanup and electric energy generation. Application of nanomaterials in biosensor and biofuel-cell devices increases their functioning efficiency and expands spheres of use. This review discusses the potential of nanomaterials in improving the basic parameters of bioelectrochemical systems, including the sensitivity increase, detection lower-limit decrease, detection-range change, lifetime increase, substrate-specificity control. In most cases, the consideration of the role of nanomaterials links a certain type of nanomaterial with its effect on the bioelectrochemical device upon the whole. The review aims at assessing the effects of nanomaterials on particular analytical parameters of a biosensor/biofuel-cell bioelectrochemical device.

Amplification-free detection of SARS-CoV-2 using gold nanotriangles functionalized with oligonucleotides

Gold nanotriangles (AuNTs) functionalized with dithiolated oligonucleotides have been employed to develop an amplification-free electrochemical biosensor for SARS-CoV-2 in patient samples. Gold nanotriangles, prepared through a seed-mediated growth method and exhaustively characterized by different techniques, serve as an improved electrochemical platform and for DNA probe immobilization. Azure A is used as an electrochemical indicator of the hybridization event. The biosensor detects either single stranded DNA or RNA sequences of SARS-CoV-2 of different lengths, with a low detection limit of 22.2 fM. In addition, it allows to detect point mutations in SARS-CoV-2 genome with the aim to detect more infective SARS-CoV-2 variants such as Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron. Results obtained with the biosensor in nasopharyngeal swab samples from COVID-19 patients show the possibility to clearly discriminate between non-infected and infected patient samples as well as patient samples with different viral load. Furthermore, the results correlate well with those obtained by the gold standard technique RT-qPCR, with the advantage of avoiding the amplification process and the need of sophisticated equipment.

Amperometric Biosensors Based on Direct Electron Transfer Enzymes

The accurate determination of analyte concentrations with selective, fast, and robust methods is the key for process control, product analysis, environmental compliance, and medical applications. Enzyme-based biosensors meet these requirements to a high degree and can be operated with simple, cost efficient, and easy to use devices. This review focuses on enzymes capable of direct electron transfer (DET) to electrodes and also the electrode materials which can enable or enhance the DET type bioelectrocatalysis. It presents amperometric biosensors for the quantification of important medical, technical, and environmental analytes and it carves out the requirements for enzymes and electrode materials in DET-based third generation biosensors. This review critically surveys enzymes and biosensors for which DET has been reported. Single- or multi-cofactor enzymes featuring copper centers, hemes, FAD, FMN, or PQQ as prosthetic groups as well as fusion enzymes are presented. Nanomaterials, nanostructured electrodes, chemical surface modifications, and protein immobilization strategies are reviewed for their ability to support direct electrochemistry of enzymes. The combination of both biosensor elements-enzymes and electrodes-is evaluated by comparison of substrate specificity, current density, sensitivity, and the range of detection.

Biofabrication of Gold Nanotriangles Using Liposomes as a Dual Functional Reductant and Stabilizer

Negatively charged liposomes accomplished both functions as a reducing and stabilizing agent in the synthesis of gold nanotriangles (GNTs). Liposomes are based on a mixture of phospholipids phosphatidylcholine/phosphoglycerol, and they were used as a template phase to perform the GNTs. The method was evaluated under different conditions such as temperature, reaction time, phosphoglycerol chain length, and precursor concentration. Isotropic and anisotropic gold nanoparticles are formed simultaneously during the synthesis. Therefore, by combining centrifugation and depletion flocculation strategies, the sample was concentrated in terms of GNTs from 15% crude to 80% by using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). As a result, a green colored dispersion was obtained containing highly purified, well-defined, negatively charged GNTs, where the edge length of most particles is centered in the range of 60-80 nm with an average thickness of 7.8 ± 0.1 nm. By this purification process, it was possible to highly increase the yield in terms of GNTs. Other surfactants [cetyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTAC), hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), Tween 20, and dodecyldimethylammonium bromide] were evaluated during the purification stage, and both CTAB and CTAC show similar results to those obtained by using SDS. These GNTs are potential candidates for future applications in molecular imaging, photothermal therapy, drug delivery, biosensing, and photodynamic therapy.

Highly sensitive and stable fructose self-powered biosensor based on a self-charging biosupercapacitor

Herein, we present an alternative approach to obtain a highly sensitive and stable self-powered biosensor that was used to detect D-fructose as proof of concept.In this platform, we perform a two-step process, viz. self-charging the biosupercapacitor for a constant time by using D-fructose as fuel and using the stored charge to realize the detection of D-fructose by performing several polarization curves at different D-fructose concentrations. The proposed BSC shows an instantaneous power density release of 17.6 mW cm^-2 and 3.8 mW cm^-2 in pulse mode and at constant load, respectively. Moreover, the power density achieved for the self-charging BSC in pulse mode or under constant load allows for an enhancement of the sensitivity of the device up to 10 times (3.82 ± 0.01 mW cm^-2 mM^-1, charging time = 70 min) compared to the BSC in continuous operation mode and 100 times compared to the normal enzymatic fuel cell. The platform can potentially be employed as a self-powered biosensor in food or biomedical applications.

Enzyme-Based Biosensors: Tackling Electron Transfer Issues

This review summarizes the fundamentals of the phenomenon of electron transfer (ET) reactions occurring in redox enzymes that were widely employed for the development of electroanalytical devices, like biosensors, and enzymatic fuel cells (EFCs). A brief introduction on the ET observed in proteins/enzymes and its paradigms (e.g., classification of ET mechanisms, maximal distance at which is observed direct electron transfer, etc.) are given. Moreover, the theoretical aspects related to direct electron transfer (DET) are resumed as a guideline for newcomers to the field. Snapshots on the ET theory formulated by Rudolph A. Marcus and on the mathematical model used to calculate the ET rate constant formulated by Laviron are provided. Particular attention is devoted to the case of glucose oxidase (GOx) that has been erroneously classified as an enzyme able to transfer electrons directly. Thereafter, all tools available to investigate ET issues are reported addressing the discussions toward the development of new methodology to tackle ET issues. In conclusion, the trends toward upcoming practical applications are suggested as well as some directions in fundamental studies of bioelectrochemistry.

Porous Gold: A New Frontier for Enzyme-Based Electrodes

Porous gold (PG) layers modified electrodes have emerged as valuable enzyme support to realize multiple enzyme-based bioelectrochemical devices like biosensors, enzymatic fuel cells (EFCs), smart drug delivery devices triggered by enzyme catalyzed reactions, etc. PG films can be synthesized by using different methods such as dealloying, electrochemical (e.g., templated electrochemical deposition, self-templated electrochemical deposition, etc.) self-assembly and sputter deposition. This review aims to summarize the recent findings about PG synthesis and electrosynthesis, its characterization and application for enzyme-based electrodes used for biosensors and enzymatic fuel cells (EFCs) development.

Bioelectrocatalysis at carbon nanotubes

This paper summarizes several examples of enzyme immobilization and bioelectrocatalysis at carbon nanotubes (CNTs). CNTs offer substantial improvements on the overall performance of amperometric enzyme electrodes mainly due to their unique structural, mechanical and electronic properties such as metallic, semi-conducting and superconducting electron transport. Unfortunately, their water insolubility restrains the kick-off in some particular fields. However, the chemical functionalization of CNTs, non-covalent and covalent, attracted a remarkable interest over the past several decades boosting the development of electrochemical biosensors and enzymatic fuel cells (EFCs) based on two different types of communications: mediated electron transfer (MET)-type, where the use of redox mediators, small electroactive molecules (freely diffusing or bound to side chains of flexible redox polymers), which are able to shuttle the electrons between the enzyme active site and the electrode (second electron transfer generation system); direct electron transfer (DET)-type between the redox group of the enzyme and the electrode surface (third electron transfer generation system).