Hydrogen-Bonded Network and Water Dynamics in the D-channel of Cytochrome c Oxidase

The mechanisms of action of mitochondrial targeting agents in cancer: inhibiting oxidative phosphorylation and inducing apoptosis

The tumor microenvironment affects the structure and metabolic function of mitochondria in tumor cells. This process involves changes in metabolic activity, an increase in the amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in tumor cells compared to normal cells, the production of more intracellular free radicals, and the activation of oxidative pathways. From a practical perspective, it is advantageous to develop drugs that target mitochondria for the treatment of malignant tumors. Such drugs can enhance the selectivity of treatments for specific cell groups, minimize toxic effects on normal tissues, and improve combinational treatments. Mitochondrial targeting agents typically rely on small molecule medications (such as synthetic small molecules agents, active ingredients of plants, mitochondrial inhibitors or autophagy inhibitors, and others), modified mitochondrial delivery system agents (such as lipophilic cation modification or combining other molecules to form targeted mitochondrial agents), and a few mitochondrial complex inhibitors. This article will review these compounds in three main areas: oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), changes in ROS levels, and endogenous oxidative and apoptotic processes.

New insights into the proton pumping mechanism of ba3 cytochrome c oxidase: the functions of key residues and water

As the terminal oxidase of cell respiration in mitochondria and aerobic bacteria, the proton pumping mechanism of ba3-type cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) of Thermus thermophiles is still not fully understood. Especially, the functions of key residues which were considered as the possible proton loading sites (PLSs) above the catalytic center, as well as water located above and within the catalytic center, remain unclear. In this work, molecular dynamic simulations were performed on a set of designed mutants of key residues (Asp287, Asp372, His376, and Glu126II). The results showed that Asp287 may not be a PLS, but it could modulate the ability of the proton transfer pathway to transfer protons through its salt bridge with Arg225. Maintaining the closed state of the water pool above the catalytic center is necessary for the participation of inside water molecules in proton transfer. Water molecules inside the water pool can form hydrogen bond chains with PLS to facilitate proton transfer. Additional quantum cluster models of the Fe-Cu metal catalytic center are established, indicating that when the proton is transferred from Tyr237, it is more likely to reach the OCu atom directly through only one water molecule. This work provides a more profound understanding of the functions of important residues and specific water molecules in the proton pumping mechanism of CcO.

Protonation-State Dependence of Hydration and Interactions in the Two Proton-Conducting Channels of Cytochrome c Oxidase

Cytochrome c Oxidase (CcO), a membrane protein of the respiratory chain, pumps protons against an electrochemical gradient by using the energy of oxygen reduction to water. The ("chemical") protons required for this reaction and those pumped are taken up via two distinct channels, named D-channel and K-channel, in a step-wise and highly regulated fashion. In the reductive phase of the catalytic cycle, both channels transport protons so that the pumped proton passes the D-channel before the "chemical" proton has crossed the K-channel. By performing molecular dynamics simulations of CcO in the O→E redox state (after the arrival of the first reducing electron) with various combinations of protonation states of the D- and K-channels, we analysed the effect of protonation on the two channels. In agreement with previous work, the amount of water observed in the D-channel was significantly higher when the terminal residue E286 was not (yet) protonated than when the proton arrived at this end of the D-channel and E286 was neutral. Since a sufficient number of water molecules in the channel is necessary for proton transport, this can be understood as E286 facilitating its own protonation. K-channel hydration shows an even higher dependence on the location of the excess proton in the K-channel. Also in agreement with previous work, the K-channel exhibits a very low hydration level that likely hinders proton transfer when the excess proton is located in the lower part of the K-channel, that is, on the N-side of S365. Once the proton has passed S365 (towards the reaction site, the bi-nuclear centre (BNC)), the amount of water in the K-channel provides hydrogen-bond connectivity that renders proton transfer up to Y288 at the BNC feasible. No significant direct effect of the protonation state of one channel on the hydration level, hydrogen-bond connectivity, or interactions between protein residues in the other channel could be observed, rendering proton conductivity in the two channels independent of each other. Regulation of the order of proton uptake and proton passage in the two channels such that the "chemical" proton leaves its channel last must, therefore, be achieved by other means of communication, such as the location of the reducing electron.

Interplay of Hydration and Protonation Dynamics in the K-Channel of Cytochrome c Oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase is a membrane protein of the respiratory chain that consumes protons and molecular oxygen to produce water and uses the resulting energy to pump protons across the membrane. Our molecular dynamics simulations with an excess proton located at different positions in one of the proton-conducting channels, the K-channel, show a clear dependence of the number of water molecules inside the channel on the proton position. A higher hydration level facilitates the formation of hydrogen-bonded chains along which proton transfer can occur. However, a sufficiently high hydration level for such proton transport is observed only when the excess proton is located above S365, i.e., the lower third of the channel. From the channel entrance up to this point, proton transport is via water molecules as proton carriers. These hydronium ions move with their surrounding water molecules, up to K362, filling and widening the channel. The conformation of K362 depends on its own protonation state and on the hydration level, suggesting its role to be proton transport from a hydronium ion at the height of K362 to the upper part of the channel via a conformational change. The protonation-dependent conformational dynamics of E101 at the bottom of the channel renders proton transfer via E101 unlikely. Instead, its role is rather that of an amplifier of H96’s proton affinity, suggesting H96 as the initial proton acceptor.

Algorithm to catalogue topologies of dynamic lipid hydrogen-bond networks

Lipid membrane interfaces host reactions essential for the functioning of cells. The hydrogen-bonding environment at the membrane interface is particularly important for binding of proteins, drug molecules, and ions. We present here the implementation and applications of a depth-first search algorithm that analyzes dynamic lipid interaction networks. Lipid hydrogen-bond networks sampled transiently during simulations of lipid bilayers are clustered according to main types of topologies that characterize three-dimensional arrangements of lipids connected to each other via short water bridges. We characterize the dynamics of hydrogen-bonded lipid clusters in simulations of model POPE and POPE:POPG membranes that are often used for bacterial membrane proteins, in a model of the Escherichia coli membrane with six different lipid types, and in POPS membranes. We find that all lipids sample dynamic hydrogen-bonded networks with linear, star, or circular arrangements of the lipid headgroups, and larger networks with combinations of these three types of topologies. Overall, linear lipid-water bridges tend to be short. Water-mediated lipid clusters in all membranes with PE lipids tend to be somewhat small, with about four lipids in all membranes studied here. POPS membranes allow circular arrangements of three POPS lipids to be sampled frequently, and complex arrangements of linear, star, and circular paths may also be sampled. These findings suggest a molecular picture of the membrane interface whereby lipid molecules transiently connect in clusters with somewhat small spatial extension.

C-Graphs Tool with Graphical User Interface to Dissect Conserved Hydrogen-Bond Networks: Applications to Visual Rhodopsins

Dynamic hydrogen-bond networks provide proteins with structural plasticity required to translate signals such as ligand binding into a cellular response or to transport ions and larger solutes across membranes and, thus, are of central interest to understand protein reaction mechanisms. Here, we present C-Graphs, an efficient tool with graphical user interface that analyzes data sets of static protein structures or of independent numerical simulations to identify conserved, vs unique, hydrogen bonds and hydrogen-bond networks. For static structures, which may belong to the same protein or to proteins with different sequences, C-Graphs uses a clustering algorithm to identify sites of the hydrogen-bond network where waters are conserved among the structures. Using C-Graphs, we identify an internal protein-water hydrogen-bond network common to static structures of visual rhodopsins and adenosine A2A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Molecular dynamics simulations of a visual rhodopsin indicate that the conserved hydrogen-bond network from static structure can recruit dynamic hydrogen bonds and extend throughout most of the receptor. We release with this work the code for C-Graphs and its graphical user interface.

Dehydrogenases of acetic acid bacteria

Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are a group of bacteria that can oxidize many substrates such as alcohols and sugar alcohols and play important roles in industrial biotechnology. A majority of industrial processes that involve AAB are related to their dehydrogenases, including PQQ/FAD-dependent membrane-bound dehydrogenases and NAD(P)⁺-dependent cytoplasmic dehydrogenases. These cofactor-dependent dehydrogenases must effectively regenerate their cofactors in order to function continuously. For PQQ, FAD and NAD(P)⁺ alike, regeneration is directly or indirectly related to the electron transport chain (ETC) of AAB, which plays an important role in energy generation for aerobic cell growth. Furthermore, in changeable natural habitats, ETC components of AAB can be regulated so that the bacteria survive in different environments. Herein, the progressive cascade in an application of AAB, including key dehydrogenases involved in the application, regeneration of dehydrogenase cofactors, ETC coupling with cofactor regeneration and ETC regulation, is systematically reviewed and discussed. As they have great application value, a deep understanding of the mechanisms through which AAB function will not only promote their utilization and development but also provide a reference for engineering of other industrial strains.

Protonation Dynamics in the K-Channel of Cytochrome c Oxidase Estimated from Molecular Dynamics Simulations

Proton transfer reactions are one of the most fundamental processes in biochemistry. We present a simplistic approach for estimating proton transfer probabilities in a membrane protein, cytochrome c oxidase. We combine short molecular dynamics simulations at discrete protonation states with a Monte Carlo approach to exchange between those states. Requesting for a proton transfer the existence of a hydrogen-bonded connection between the two source and target residues of the exchange, restricts the acceptance of transfers to only those in which a proton-relay is possible. Together with an analysis of the hydrogen-bonded connectivity in one of the proton-conducting channels of cytochrome c oxidase, this approach gives insight into the protonation dynamics of the hydrogen-bonded networks. The connectivity and directionality of the networks are coupled to the conformation of an important protein residue in the channel, K362, rendering proton transfer in the entire channel feasible in only one of the two major conformations. Proton transport in the channel can thus be regulated by K362 not only through its possible role as a proton carrier itself, but also by allowing or preventing proton transport via water residues.

An Unusual Amino Acid Substitution Within Hummingbird Cytochrome c Oxidase Alters a Key Proton-Conducting Channel

Hummingbirds in flight exhibit the highest mass-specific metabolic rate of all vertebrates. The bioenergetic requirements associated with sustained hovering flight raise the possibility of unique amino acid substitutions that would enhance aerobic metabolism. Here, we have identified a non-conservative substitution within the mitochondria-encoded cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) that is fixed within hummingbirds, but not among other vertebrates. This unusual change is also rare among metazoans, but can be identified in several clades with diverse life histories. We performed atomistic molecular dynamics simulations using bovine and hummingbird COI models, thereby bypassing experimental limitations imposed by the inability to modify mtDNA in a site-specific manner. Intriguingly, our findings suggest that COI amino acid position 153 (bovine numbering convention) provides control over the hydration and activity of a key proton channel in COX. We discuss potential phenotypic outcomes linked to this alteration encoded by hummingbird mitochondrial genomes.

Proton transfer in the D-channel of cytochrome c oxidase modeled by a transition network approach

BACKGROUND

Determination of proton uptake pathways in Cytochrome c Oxidase is difficult due to the complexity of the system. The transition networks approach allows sampling of proton transfer pathways without predefined reaction coordinate.

METHODS

Computation of the proton transfer pathways in a model of the D-channel of cytochrome c oxidase has been performed by a transition network approach that combines discrete, optimisation based and molecular dynamics based sampling.

RESULTS

The optimal pathway involves an opening of the so-called asparagine gate, hydration of the asparagine region, the formation of a hydrogen-bonded chain, and finally concerted proton hole transport along this chain. The optimal pathway finds the protonation of residue H26 close to the channel entrance favourable for lowering the transition energies of subsequent steps, in particular, opening of the Asn gate and formation of a hydrogen-bonded chain. Residue Y33 plays an important role in shuttling the transferred proton hole.

CONCLUSIONS

The optimal pathway found by the transition network approach shows the same important characteristics as pathways determined earlier by other methods. The computed barrier and reaction energies are also in good agreement with previous studies. The transition network approach provides an alternative to explore pathways in complex systems.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

The correct function of the enzyme as oxidase and proton pump depends on the interplay of several redox and proton transport steps. Understanding the proton transport mechanism is therefore key to understanding the protein's function. The complex nature of long- distances proton transfer through a protein requires a non-trivial simulation strategy.

The redox-coupled proton-channel opening in cytochrome c oxidase

The interplay of cytochrome c oxidase's cofactor electrostatics, long-range conformational changes, H-bond rearrangement, and water dynamics enables transient proton-channel activation.

Spin Interconversion of Heme-Peroxo-Copper Complexes Facilitated by Intramolecular Hydrogen-Bonding Interactions

Synthetic peroxo-bridged high-spin (HS) heme-(μ-η2:η1-O22-)-Cu(L) complexes incorporating (as part of the copper ligand) intramolecular hydrogen-bond (H-bond) capabilities and/or steric effects are herein demonstrated to affect the complex's electronic and geometric structure, notably impacting the spin state. An H-bonding interaction with the peroxo core favors a low-spin (LS) heme-(μ-η1:η1-O22-)-Cu(L) structure, resulting in a reversible temperature-dependent interconversion of spin state (5 coordinate HS to 6 coordinate LS). The LS state dominates at low temperatures, even in the absence of a strong trans-axial heme ligand. Lewis base addition inhibits the H-bond facilitated spin interconversion by competition for the H-bond donor, illustrating the precise H-bonding interaction required to induce spin-crossover (SCO). Resonance Raman spectroscopy (rR) shows that the H-bonding pendant interacts with the bridging peroxide ligand to stabilize the LS but not the HS state. The H-bond (to the Cu-bound O atom) acts to weaken the O-O bond and strengthen the Fe-O bond, exhibiting ν(M-O) and ν(O-O) values comparable to analogous known LS complexes with a strong donating trans-axial ligand, 1,5-dicyclohexylimidazole, (DCHIm)heme-(μ-η1:η1-O22-)-Cu(L). Variable-temperature (-90 to -130 °C) UV-vis and 2H NMR spectroscopies confirm the SCO process and implicate the involvement of solvent binding. Examining a case of solvent binding without SCO, thermodynamic parameters were obtained from a van't Hoff analysis, accounting for its contribution in SCO. Taken together, these data provide evidence for the H-bond group facilitating a core geometry change and allowing solvent to bind, stabilizing a LS state. The rR data, complemented by DFT analysis, reveal a stronger H-bonding interaction with the peroxo core in the LS compared to the HS complexes, which enthalpically favors the LS state. These insights enhance our fundamental understanding of secondary coordination sphere influences in metalloenzymes.

Prediction of perturbed proton transfer networks

The transfer of protons through proton translocating channels is a complex process, for which direct samplings of different protonation states and side chain conformations in a transition network calculation provide an efficient, bias-free description. In principle, a new transition network calculation is required for every unsampled change in the system of interest, e.g. an unsampled protonation state change, which is associated with significant computational costs. Transition networks void of or including an unsampled change are termed unperturbed or perturbed, respectively. Here, we present a prediction method, which is based on an extensive coarse-graining of the underlying transition networks to speed up the calculations. It uses the minimum spanning tree and a corresponding sensitivity analysis of an unperturbed transition network as initial guess and refinement parameter for the determination of an unknown, perturbed transition network. Thereby, the minimum spanning tree defines a sub-network connecting all nodes without cycles and minimal edge weight sum, while the sensitivity analysis analyzes the stability of the minimum spanning tree towards individual edge weight reductions. Using the prediction method, we are able to reduce the calculation costs in a model system by up to 80%, while important network properties are maintained in most predictions.