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Waichman AV, Nunes GSDS, de Oliveira R, López-Heras I, Rico A. Human health risks associated to trace elements and metals in commercial fish from the Brazilian Amazon. J Environ Sci (China) 2025; 148:230-242. [PMID: 39095160 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2023.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
Fish constitutes the main protein source for the Amazonian population. However, the impact of different anthropogenic activities on trace element and metal accumulation in fish and their risks for human health at a regional scale remain largely unexplored. Here we assessed exposure levels of 10 trace elements and metals (Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Pb, and Hg) in 56 samples belonging to 11 different species of fish from the Brazilian Amazon. We studied the relationship between exposure levels, fish origin, and fish feeding habits, and assessed toxicological and carcinogenic risks for the Amazonian population. No significant correlation was found between sampling site and exposure levels to the studied elements, but a significant difference was found between the accumulation of some metals and the position of the fish species in the food chain. The concentrations of Cr and Hg in fish flesh were found to exceed the Brazilian limits for human consumption. This study shows that current fish consumption patterns can lead to estimated daily intakes of Hg, As and Cr that exceed the oral reference dose, thus posing a toxicological concern. Furthermore, carcinogenic risks may be expected due to the continued exposure to Cr and As. The results of this study show that the consumption of wild caught fish in the Amazon region should be controlled. Moreover, continued monitoring of trace element and metal contamination in fish and on the health of the Amazonian population is recommended, particularly for riverine and indigenous communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea V Waichman
- Federal University of the Amazon, Institute of Biological Sciences, Av. Rodrigo Ramos 3000, Manaus 69077-000, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Silva de Souza Nunes
- Federal University of Pernambuco, Department of Zoology, Av. Prof Moraes Rego 1235, Cidade Universitária, Recife 50670-901, Brazil
| | - Rhaul de Oliveira
- University of Campinas, School of Technology, Rua Paschoal Marmo 1888 - Jd. Nova Itália, Limeira 13484-332, Brazil
| | - Isabel López-Heras
- IMDEA Water Institute, Science and Technology Campus of the University of Alcalá, Av. Punto Com 2, Alcalá de Henares 28805, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andreu Rico
- IMDEA Water Institute, Science and Technology Campus of the University of Alcalá, Av. Punto Com 2, Alcalá de Henares 28805, Madrid, Spain; Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of Valencia, c/ Catedrático José Beltrán 2, 46980, Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
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de Oliveira AT, Rodrigues PDA, Ramos Filho AM, Gomes MFDS, Liebl ARDS, de Pinho JV, Aride PHR, Conte-Junior CA. Levels of Total Mercury and Health Risk Assessment of Consuming Freshwater Stingrays (Chondrichthyes: Potamotrygoninae) of the Brazilian Amazon. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6990. [PMID: 37947548 PMCID: PMC10647567 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20216990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Mercury is an element with potential risk to fish and those who consume it. Thus, this study aimed to determine the levels of total mercury (THg), carry out a health risk assessment related to the consumption of the freshwater stingrays Potamotrygon motoro, and determine the physical and chemical properties of the water where stingrays occur. Stingrays of the species P. motoro were obtained from the Amazon River, and samples of the animals' musculature were collected to determine THg levels. Risk assessment was conducted using pre-established formulas of estimated monthly intake (EMI), maximum monthly intake rate (IRmm), and hazard quotient (HQ). Three population scenarios were evaluated, considering both sexes and differences between rural and urban areas. There was no relationship between weight and THg concentration nor between total length and THg concentration. Higher EMI values were observed in rural children; for the IRmm, male children had the lowest consumption levels. For the hazard quotient, there was a similarity between the three age groups when comparing the male and female sexes. In addition, the representatives of the rural area always had lower values than the urban area. Freshwater stingrays, like other elasmobranchs, can be crucial animal species because they act as sentinels in studies that assess harmful chemicals like mercury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano Teixeira de Oliveira
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Academic Department of Teacher Training (DAEF), Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Amazonas (IFAM), Manaus Centro Campus (CMC), Manaus 69020-120, AM, Brazil; (M.F.d.S.G.); (A.R.d.S.L.); (P.H.R.A.)
- Graduate Program in Animal Science and Fisheries Resources (PPGCARP), Faculty of Agricultural Sciences (FCA), Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM), University Campus, Manaus 69077-000, AM, Brazil
- Center for Food Analysis (NAL), Technological Development Support Laboratory (LADETEC), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-598, RJ, Brazil; (P.d.A.R.); (A.M.R.F.); (J.V.d.P.); (C.A.C.-J.)
- Laboratory of Advanced Analysis in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (LAABBM), Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
| | - Paloma de Almeida Rodrigues
- Center for Food Analysis (NAL), Technological Development Support Laboratory (LADETEC), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-598, RJ, Brazil; (P.d.A.R.); (A.M.R.F.); (J.V.d.P.); (C.A.C.-J.)
- Laboratory of Advanced Analysis in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (LAABBM), Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Mendes Ramos Filho
- Center for Food Analysis (NAL), Technological Development Support Laboratory (LADETEC), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-598, RJ, Brazil; (P.d.A.R.); (A.M.R.F.); (J.V.d.P.); (C.A.C.-J.)
- Laboratory of Advanced Analysis in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (LAABBM), Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
| | - Maria Fernanda da Silva Gomes
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Academic Department of Teacher Training (DAEF), Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Amazonas (IFAM), Manaus Centro Campus (CMC), Manaus 69020-120, AM, Brazil; (M.F.d.S.G.); (A.R.d.S.L.); (P.H.R.A.)
- Graduate Program in Animal Science and Fisheries Resources (PPGCARP), Faculty of Agricultural Sciences (FCA), Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM), University Campus, Manaus 69077-000, AM, Brazil
| | - Ariany Rabello da Silva Liebl
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Academic Department of Teacher Training (DAEF), Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Amazonas (IFAM), Manaus Centro Campus (CMC), Manaus 69020-120, AM, Brazil; (M.F.d.S.G.); (A.R.d.S.L.); (P.H.R.A.)
| | - Júlia Vianna de Pinho
- Center for Food Analysis (NAL), Technological Development Support Laboratory (LADETEC), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-598, RJ, Brazil; (P.d.A.R.); (A.M.R.F.); (J.V.d.P.); (C.A.C.-J.)
- Laboratory of Advanced Analysis in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (LAABBM), Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Sanitary Surveillance (PPGVS), National Institute of Health Quality Control (INCQS), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil
- National Institute of Health Quality Control, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil
| | - Paulo Henrique Rocha Aride
- Animal Morphophysiology Laboratory, Academic Department of Teacher Training (DAEF), Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Amazonas (IFAM), Manaus Centro Campus (CMC), Manaus 69020-120, AM, Brazil; (M.F.d.S.G.); (A.R.d.S.L.); (P.H.R.A.)
| | - Carlos Adam Conte-Junior
- Center for Food Analysis (NAL), Technological Development Support Laboratory (LADETEC), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-598, RJ, Brazil; (P.d.A.R.); (A.M.R.F.); (J.V.d.P.); (C.A.C.-J.)
- Laboratory of Advanced Analysis in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (LAABBM), Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Sanitary Surveillance (PPGVS), National Institute of Health Quality Control (INCQS), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil
- National Institute of Health Quality Control, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Veterinary Hygiene (PPGHV), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Fluminense Federal University (UFF), Vital Brazil Filho, Niteroi 24220-000, RJ, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Food Science (PPGCAL), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Chemistry (PGQu), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), University City, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
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Monroy-Licht A, Méndez-Cuadro D, Olivero-Verbel J. Elemental mercury accumulation in Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laubach. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:9898-9913. [PMID: 36064851 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-22521-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The aquatic macrophyte Eichhornia crassipes has great potential for the control of Hg pollution in the environment. The aim of this study was to investigate the capability of E. crassipes to accumulate elemental mercury (Hg0). The plants were exposed for 30 days to 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 mg of Hg0 in a 1-L Hoagland medium with the Hg0 settled at the bottom of the flask. The roots of the plants did not touch the mercury during the treatment. After exposure, the total Hg (T-Hg) concentrations in the roots, leaves, and stems were measured using a direct mercury (Hg) analyzer. The highest concentrations were found at 80 mg Hg0 treatment in the roots, leaves, and stems, in that order. The translocation factor indicated a poor capability of Hg to translocate from the roots to the shoots. The relative growth and the root-length inhibition measurements showed that the differences between Hg0 treatments were not significant. In addition, the treatments negatively affected the chlorophyll concentration. The carotenoid content was found to be significantly different at 20 and 40 mg of Hg0 in 1 L. Regarding the carbonyl index in root proteins, significant differences compared to control were found at the highest Hg treatment. Based on these results, it was shown that E. crassipes is able to take up elemental Hg from Hoagland medium. However, the Hg0 treatments did not show a strong stress-response activation mechanism in the evaluated plant tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Monroy-Licht
- Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Cartagena, Zaragocilla Campus, 130014, Cartagena, Colombia
- Chemistry and Biology Group, Chemistry and Biology Department, Universidad del Norte, 081007, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Darío Méndez-Cuadro
- Analytical Chemistry and Biomedicine Group, Department of Biology, School of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Cartagena, 130015, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia
| | - Jesus Olivero-Verbel
- Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Cartagena, Zaragocilla Campus, 130014, Cartagena, Colombia.
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Caicedo-Rivas G, Salas-Moreno M, Marrugo-Negrete J. Health Risk Assessment for Human Exposure to Heavy Metals via Food Consumption in Inhabitants of Middle Basin of the Atrato River in the Colombian Pacific. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 20:435. [PMID: 36612759 PMCID: PMC9819723 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20010435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The Atrato river basin is one of the world's most biodiverse areas; however, it is highly impacted by mercury gold mining, which generates air, water, and soil pollution. (1) Background: The concentrations of persistent heavy metal pollutants, mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As) in the fish, fruits, and vegetables most consumed by the riverside inhabitants of the middle basin of the Atrato river represent a danger to public health; (2) Methods: A total of 154 samples of different fruits and vegetables and 440 samples of fish were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy. A sample of 446 people were surveyed to evaluate food consumption and carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk; (4) Conclusions: High concentrations of As, Hg, Pb, and Cd were identified in fish, fruits-tubers, and vegetables-stems commonly consumed by inhabitants of the middle basin of the Atrato River, which exceeded the Codex limits and the limits established by the WHO/FAO, especially for carnivorous fish species. A high carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk was evidenced amongst inhabitants of the middle basin of the Atrato River due to the consumption of fish contaminated with high concentrations of As, MeHg, and THg. The risk due to the consumption of vegetables was very low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Caicedo-Rivas
- Biosistematic Research Group, Biology Department, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica Del Chocó, Quibdó 270002, Chocó, Colombia
| | - Manuel Salas-Moreno
- Biosistematic Research Group, Biology Department, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica Del Chocó, Quibdó 270002, Chocó, Colombia
| | - José Marrugo-Negrete
- Faculty of Basic Sciences, Universidad de Córdoba, Carrera 6 No. 76-103, Montería 230002, Córdoba, Colombia
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Olivero-Verbel J, Alvarez-Ortega N, Alcala-Orozco M, Caballero-Gallardo K. Population exposure to lead and mercury in Latin America. CURRENT OPINION IN TOXICOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cotox.2021.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Albuquerque FEA, Herrero-Latorre C, Miranda M, Barrêto Júnior RA, Oliveira FLC, Sucupira MCA, Ortolani EL, Minervino AHH, López-Alonso M. Fish tissues for biomonitoring toxic and essential trace elements in the Lower Amazon. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 283:117024. [PMID: 33857879 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Brazilian soils can have high concentrations of toxic elements, mainly mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As), metals also associated with anthropogenic activities (e.g. intensive agriculture, mining, deforestation and hydroelectric plants). This can lead to large amounts of these elements reaching and/or being mobilized in the aquatic ecosystem, which constitutes a serious threat to the environment and to the health of local populations. Thus, we evaluate the feasibility of analyzing the tissues of freshwater fish species for monitoring toxic and trace element accumulation within the aquatic ecosystem in the Lower Amazon, Brazil. Two fish species were considered: Cichla temensis (Tucunaré), a carnivorous species, and Pterygoplichthys pardalis (Acari), a detritivorous species. Samples of liver and muscle from both species were evaluated in relation to their potential use for biomonitoring purposes. The study findings clearly demonstrate the value these fish species and tissues, particularly liver, for biomonitoring toxic and trace element concentrations in the aquatic environment across the study region. While Tucunaré liver proved the best option for biomonitoring elements that accumulate through the food chain (e.g. Hg), Acari liver better reflected elements that typically accumulate in the sediments (e.g. As). Moreover, the trace element profiles, determined using chemometric (multivariate) techniques, differed greatly in specimens from waters in the Andean mountain range (sampling sites located in the main course of the Amazon River) with high sediment concentrations, and in specimens from the Guyana and Brazilian shields (Porto Trombetas on the Trombetas River and Itaituba on the Tapajós River). The findings also indicate that deposition of elements in freshwater fish in this area is mainly associated with the geological origin of the soils and that large amounts of toxic elements can reach the aquatic ecosystem due to anthropogenic activities, thereby posing a serious danger to the environment and the health of the riverside communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Edir Amaral Albuquerque
- Laboratory of Animal Health, LARSANA, Federal University of Western Pará, UFOPA, Rua Vera Paz, S/n, Salé, CEP 68040-255, Santarém, PA, Brazil; Department of Animal Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Carlos Herrero-Latorre
- Research Institute on Chemical and Biological Analyses (IIAQBUS), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Marta Miranda
- Department of Anatomy, Animal Production and Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Veterinary Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
| | - Raimundo Alves Barrêto Júnior
- Department of Animal Science, Federal Rural University of the Semiarid Region (UFERSA), Av. Francisco Mota, S/nº - Bairro Pres. Costa e Silva, CEP 59625-900, Mossoró, RN, Brazil
| | - Francisco Leonardo Costa Oliveira
- Department of Clinical Science, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo (FMVZ/USP), Av. Prof. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, Cidade Universitária, CEP 05508-270, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria Cláudia Araripe Sucupira
- Department of Clinical Science, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo (FMVZ/USP), Av. Prof. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, Cidade Universitária, CEP 05508-270, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Enrico Lippi Ortolani
- Department of Clinical Science, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo (FMVZ/USP), Av. Prof. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, Cidade Universitária, CEP 05508-270, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Antonio Humberto Hamad Minervino
- Laboratory of Animal Health, LARSANA, Federal University of Western Pará, UFOPA, Rua Vera Paz, S/n, Salé, CEP 68040-255, Santarém, PA, Brazil.
| | - Marta López-Alonso
- Department of Animal Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain
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Zheng J, Li M, Tang B, Luo W, Ma Y, Ren M, Yu Y, Luo X, Mai B. Levels, Spatial Distribution, and Impact Factors of Heavy Metals in the Hair of Metropolitan Residents in China and Human Health Implications. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:10578-10588. [PMID: 34296597 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c02001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Chronic exposure to low levels of heavy metals threatens human health. However, few studies evaluated the health effects and spatial distributions of chronic exposure to heavy metals in metropolitan residents throughout mainland China using unified sampling methods and evaluation indicators at the national level. Here, the concentrations and spatial distributions of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Sb, Pb, and Hg) in the hair of 1202 metropolitan residents from mainland China were analyzed, and differences in age and sex were evaluated. Most target metals exhibited higher concentrations in the hair of residents from South Central China. Generally, male hair had higher As and Se concentrations, whereas female hair had higher Cd and Pb levels (p < 0.05). A significant pairwise correlation existed between most metals in hair, especially Cd-Pb (r = 0.638, p < 0.05). The Se/heavy metal molar ratio is used as an indicator to assess the detoxification ability. The results demonstrated that protecting metropolitan residents in South Central China from heavy metals in their daily life is crucial, particularly for Hg, Pb, and Cr with Se/(Hg, Pb, or Cr) molar ratios < 1. This is the first study to comprehensively consider the antagonistic effects of Se and heavy metals using the molar ratio of Se/heavy metals to evaluate health implications and propose health management policies for metropolitan residents in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zheng
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Guangzhou 510655, P. R. China
| | - Min Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Guangzhou 510655, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Guangzhou 510640, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Bin Tang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Guangzhou 510655, P. R. China
| | - Weikeng Luo
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Guangzhou 510655, P. R. China
| | - Yan Ma
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Guangzhou 510655, P. R. China
| | - Mingzhong Ren
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Guangzhou 510655, P. R. China
| | - Yunjiang Yu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Guangzhou 510655, P. R. China
| | - Xiaojun Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Guangzhou 510640, P. R. China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Guangzhou 510640, P. R. China
| | - Bixian Mai
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Resources Utilization and Protection, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Guangzhou 510640, P. R. China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Joint Laboratory for Environmental Pollution and Control, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Guangzhou 510640, P. R. China
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