α-Galactosidase delivery using 30Kc19-human serum albumin nanoparticles for effective treatment of Fabry disease

Secured delivery of basic fibroblast growth factor using human serum albumin-based protein nanoparticles for enhanced wound healing and regeneration

BACKGROUND

Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) is one of the critical components accelerating angiogenesis and tissue regeneration by promoting the migration of dermal fibroblasts and endothelial cells associated with matrix formation and remodeling in wound healing process. However, clinical applications of bFGF are substantially limited by its unstable nature due to rapid decomposition under physiological microenvironment.

RESULTS

In this study, we present the bFGF-loaded human serum albumin nanoparticles (HSA-bFGF NPs) as a means of enhanced stability and sustained release platform during tissue regeneration. Spherical shape of the HSA-bFGF NPs with uniform size distribution (polydispersity index < 0.2) is obtained via a simple desolvation and crosslinking process. The HSA-bFGF NPs securely load and release the intact soluble bFGF proteins, thereby significantly enhancing the proliferation and migration activity of human dermal fibroblasts. Myofibroblast-related genes and proteins were also significantly down-regulated, indicating decrease in risk of scar formation. Furthermore, wound healing is accelerated while achieving a highly organized extracellular matrix and enhanced angiogenesis in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Consequently, the HSA-bFGF NPs are suggested not only as a delivery vehicle but also as a protein stabilizer for effective wound healing and tissue regeneration.

Polymer-based drug delivery systems under investigation for enzyme replacement and other therapies of lysosomal storage disorders

Lysosomes play a central role in cellular homeostasis and alterations in this compartment associate with many diseases. The most studied example is that of lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs), a group of 60 + maladies due to genetic mutations affecting lysosomal components, mostly enzymes. This leads to aberrant intracellular storage of macromolecules, altering normal cell function and causing multiorgan syndromes, often fatal within the first years of life. Several treatment modalities are available for a dozen LSDs, mostly consisting of enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) strategies. Yet, poor biodistribution to main targets such as the central nervous system, musculoskeletal tissue, and others, as well as generation of blocking antibodies and adverse effects hinder effective LSD treatment. Drug delivery systems are being studied to surmount these obstacles, including polymeric constructs and nanoparticles that constitute the focus of this article. We provide an overview of the formulations being tested, the diseases they aim to treat, and the results observed from respective in vitro and in vivo studies. We also discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these strategies, the remaining gaps of knowledge regarding their performance, and important items to consider for their clinical translation. Overall, polymeric nanoconstructs hold considerable promise to advance treatment for LSDs.

Development of a Biosimilar of Agalsidase Beta for the Treatment of Fabry Disease: Preclinical Evaluation

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Fabry disease (FD) is a rare lysosomal storage disorder caused by a deficiency of the enzyme α-galactosidase A (aGal A). Since 2001, two different enzyme replacement therapies have been authorized, with agalsidase beta being used in most parts of the Western world. Currently, biosimilars of several expensive enzyme therapies are under development to improve their accessibility for patients. We present the preclinical results of the development of a biosimilar to agalsidase beta.

METHODS

Produced in a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)-cell system, the biosimilar aGal A Biosidus (AGABIO), was compared with agalsidase beta with respect to amino acid sequence, glycosylation, specific α-galactosidase activity, stability in plasma, and effects on cultured human Fabry fibroblasts and Fabry mice.

RESULTS

AGABIO had the same amino acid composition and similar glycosylation, enzymatic activity, and stability as compared with agalsidase beta. After uptake in fibroblasts, α-galactosidase A activity increased in a dose-dependent manner, with maximum uptake observed after 24 h, which remained stable until at least 48 h. Both enzymes were localized to lysosomes. Reduction of accumulated globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) and lysoGb3 in cultured Fabry fibroblasts by AGABIO and agalsidase beta showed comparable dose-response curves. In Fabry knockout mice, after a single injection, both enzymes were rapidly cleared from the plasma and showed equal reductions in tissue and plasma sphingolipids. Repeated dose studies in rats did not raise any safety concerns. Anti-drug antibodies from patients with FD treated with agalsidase beta showed equal neutralization activity toward AGABIO.

CONCLUSION

These findings support the biosimilarity of AGABIO in comparison with agalsidase beta. The clinical study phase is currently under development.

Lysosomal nanotoxicity: Impact of nanomedicines on lysosomal function

Although several nanomedicines got clinical approval over the past two decades, the clinical translation rate is relatively small so far. There are many post-surveillance withdrawals of nanomedicines caused by various safety issues. For successful clinical advancement of nanotechnology, it is of unmet need to realize cellular and molecular foundation of nanotoxicity. Current data suggest that lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanoparticles is emerging as the most common intracellular trigger of nanotoxicity. This review analyzes prospect mechanisms of lysosomal dysfunction-mediated toxicity induced by nanoparticles. We summarized and critically assessed adverse drug reactions of current clinically approved nanomedicines. Importantly, we show that physicochemical properties have great impact on nanoparticles interaction with cells, excretion route and kinetics, and subsequently on toxicity. We analyzed literature on adverse reactions of current nanomedicines and hypothesized that adverse reactions might be linked with lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanomedicines. Finally, from our analysis it becomes clear that it is unjustifiable to generalize safety and toxicity of nanoparticles, since different particles possess distinct toxicological properties. We propose that the biological mechanism of the disease progression and treatment should be central in the optimization of nanoparticle design.

Current treatment options and novel nanotechnology-driven enzyme replacement strategies for lysosomal storage disorders

Lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs) are a vast group of more than 50 clinically identified metabolic diseases. They are singly rare, but they affect collectively 1 on 5,000 live births. They result in most of the cases from an enzymatic defect within lysosomes, which causes the subsequent augmentation of unwanted substrates. This accumulation process leads to plenty of clinical signs, determined by the specific substrate and accumulation area. The majority of LSDs present a broad organ and tissue engagement. Brain, connective tissues, viscera and bones are usually afflicted. Among them, brain disease is markedly frequent (two-thirds of LSDs). The most clinically employed approach to treat LSDs is enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), which is practiced by administering systemically the missed or defective enzyme. It represents a healthful strategy for 11 LSDs at the moment, but it solves the pathology only in the case of Gaucher disease. This approach, in fact, is not efficacious in the case of LSDs that have an effect on the central nervous system (CNS) due to the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Additionally, ERT suffers from several other weak points, such as low penetration of the exogenously administered enzyme to poorly vascularized areas, the development of immunogenicity and infusion-associated reactions (IARs), and, last but not least, the very high cost and lifelong needed. To ameliorate these weaknesses lot of efforts have been recently spent around the development of innovative nanotechnology-driven ERT strategies. They may boost the power of ERT and minimize adverse reactions by loading enzymes into biodegradable nanomaterials. Enzyme encapsulation into biocompatible liposomes, micelles, and polymeric nanoparticles, for example, can protect enzymatic activity, eliminating immunologic reactions and premature enzyme degradation. It can also permit a controlled release of the payload, ameliorating pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug. Additionally, the potential to functionalize the surface of the nanocarrier with targeting agents (antibodies or peptides), could promote the passage through biological barriers. In this review we examined the clinically applied ERTs, highlighting limitations that do not allow to completely cure the specific LSD. Later, we critically consider the nanotechnology-based ERT strategies that have beenin-vitroand/orin-vivotested to improve ERT efficacy.

Enhanced efficiency of generating human-induced pluripotent stem cells using Lin28-30Kc19 fusion protein

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have intrinsic properties, such as self-renewal ability and pluripotency, which are also shown in embryonic stem cells (ESCs). The challenge of improving the iPSC generation efficiency has been an important issue and there have been many attempts to develop iPSC generation methods. In this research, we added Lin28, known as one of the reprogramming factors, in the form of a soluble recombinant protein from E. coli to improve the efficiency of human iPSC (hiPSC) generation, in respect of alkaline phosphatase (AP)-positive colonies. To deliver Lin28 inside the cells, we generated a soluble Lin28-30Kc19 fusion protein, with 30Kc19 at the C-terminal domain of Lin28. 30Kc19, a silkworm hemolymph-derived protein, was fused due to its cell-penetrating and protein-stabilizing properties. The Lin28-30Kc19 was treated to human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs), in combination with four defined reprogramming factors (Oct4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4). After 14 days of cell culture, we confirmed the generated hiPSCs through AP staining. According to the results, the addition of Lin28-30Kc19 increased the number and size of generated AP-positive hiPSC colonies. Through this research, we anticipate that this recombinant protein would be a valuable material for increasing the efficiency of hiPSC generation and for enhancing the possibility as a substitute of the conventional method.

Comparison between Nanoparticle Encapsulation and Surface Loading for Lysosomal Enzyme Replacement Therapy

Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) enhance the delivery of therapeutic enzymes for replacement therapy of lysosomal storage disorders. Previous studies examined NPs encapsulating or coated with enzymes, but these formulations have never been compared. We examined this using hyaluronidase (HAse), deficient in mucopolysaccharidosis IX, and acid sphingomyelinase (ASM), deficient in types A−B Niemann−Pick disease. Initial screening of size, PDI, ζ potential, and loading resulted in the selection of the Lactel II co-polymer vs. Lactel I or Resomer, and Pluronic F68 surfactant vs. PVA or DMAB. Enzyme input and addition of carrier protein were evaluated, rendering NPs having, e.g., 181 nm diameter, 0.15 PDI, −36 mV ζ potential, and 538 HAse molecules encapsulated per NP. Similar NPs were coated with enzyme, which reduced loading (e.g., 292 HAse molecules/NP). NPs were coated with targeting antibodies (> 122 molecules/NP), lyophilized for storage without alterations, and acceptably stable at physiological conditions. NPs were internalized, trafficked to lysosomes, released active enzyme at lysosomal conditions, and targeted both peripheral organs and the brain after i.v. administration in mice. While both formulations enhanced enzyme delivery compared to free enzyme, encapsulating NPs surpassed coated counterparts (18.4- vs. 4.3-fold enhancement in cells and 6.2- vs. 3-fold enhancement in brains), providing guidance for future applications.

Enzyme Replacement Therapy for Genetic Disorders Associated with Enzyme Deficiency

Mutations in human genes might lead to loss of functional proteins, causing diseases. Among these genetic disorders, a large class is associated with the deficiency in metabolic enzymes, resulting in both an increase in the concentration of substrates and a loss in the metabolites produced by the catalyzed reactions. The identification of therapeutic actions based on small molecules represents a challenge to medicinal chemists because the target is missing. Alternative approaches are biology-based, ranging from gene and stem cell therapy, CRISPR/Cas9 technology, distinct types of RNAs, and enzyme replacement therapy (ERT). This review will focus on the latter approach that since the 1990s has been successfully applied to cure many rare diseases, most of them being lysosomal storage diseases or metabolic diseases. So far, a dozen enzymes have been approved by FDA/EMA for lysosome storage disorders and only a few for metabolic diseases. Enzymes for replacement therapy are mainly produced in mammalian cells and some in plant cells and yeasts and are further processed to obtain active, highly bioavailable, less degradable products. Issues still under investigation for the increase in ERT efficacy are the optimization of enzymes interaction with cell membrane and internalization, the reduction in immunogenicity, and the overcoming of blood-brain barrier limitations when neuronal cells need to be targeted. Overall, ERT has demonstrated its efficacy and safety in the treatment of many genetic rare diseases, both saving newborn lives and improving patients' life quality, and represents a very successful example of targeted biologics.

Extracellular vesicles from recombinant cell factories improve the activity and efficacy of enzymes defective in lysosomal storage disorders

In the present study the use of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as vehicles for therapeutic enzymes in lysosomal storage disorders was explored. EVs were isolated from mammalian cells overexpressing alpha-galactosidase A (GLA) or N-sulfoglucosamine sulfohydrolase (SGSH) enzymes, defective in Fabry and Sanfilippo A diseases, respectively. Direct purification of EVs from cell supernatants was found to be a simple and efficient method to obtain highly active GLA and SGSH proteins, even after EV lyophilization. Likewise, EVs carrying GLA (EV-GLA) were rapidly uptaken and reached the lysosomes in cellular models of Fabry disease, restoring lysosomal functionality much more efficiently than the recombinant enzyme in clinical use. In vivo, EVs were well tolerated and distributed among all main organs, including the brain. DiR-labelled EVs were localized in brain parenchyma 1 h after intra-arterial (internal carotid artery) or intravenous (tail vein) administrations. Moreover, a single intravenous administration of EV-GLA was able to reduce globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) substrate levels in clinically relevant tissues, such kidneys and brain. Overall, our results demonstrate that EVs from cells overexpressing lysosomal enzymes act as natural protein delivery systems, improving the activity and the efficacy of the recombinant proteins and facilitating their access to organs neglected by conventional enzyme replacement therapies.

Potential and Applications of Nanocarriers for Efficient Delivery of Biopharmaceuticals

During the past two decades, the clinical use of biopharmaceutical products has markedly increased because of their obvious advantages over conventional small-molecule drug products. These advantages include better specificity, potency, targeting abilities, and reduced side effects. Despite the substantial clinical and commercial success, the macromolecular structure and intrinsic instability of biopharmaceuticals make their formulation and administration challenging and render parenteral delivery as the only viable option in most cases. The use of nanocarriers for efficient delivery of biopharmaceuticals is essential due to their practical benefits such as protecting from degradation in a hostile physiological environment, enhancing plasma half-life and retention time, facilitating absorption through the epithelium, providing site-specific delivery, and improving access to intracellular targets. In the current review, we highlight the clinical and commercial success of biopharmaceuticals and the overall applications and potential of nanocarriers in biopharmaceuticals delivery. Effective applications of nanocarriers for biopharmaceuticals delivery via invasive and noninvasive routes (oral, pulmonary, nasal, and skin) are presented here. The presented data undoubtedly demonstrate the great potential of combining nanocarriers with biopharmaceuticals to improve healthcare products in the future clinical landscape. In conclusion, nanocarriers are promising delivery tool for the hormones, cytokines, nucleic acids, vaccines, antibodies, enzymes, and gene- and cell-based therapeutics for the treatment of multiple pathological conditions.

CNS-Targeting Therapies for Lysosomal Storage Diseases: Current Advances and Challenges

During the past decades, several therapeutic approaches have been developed and made rapidly available for many patients afflicted with lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs), inborn organelle disorders with broad clinical manifestations secondary to the progressive accumulation of undegraded macromolecules within lysosomes. These conditions are individually rare, but, collectively, their incidence ranges from 1 in 2,315 to 7,700 live-births. Most LSDs are manifested by neurological symptoms or signs, including developmental delay, seizures, acroparesthesia, motor weakness, and extrapyramidal signs. The chronic and later-onset clinical forms are at one end of the continuum spectrum and are characterized by a subtle and slow progression of neurological symptoms. Due to its inherent physiological properties, unfortunately, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) constitutes a significant obstacle for current and upcoming therapies to achieve the central nervous system (CNS) and treat neurological problems so prevalent in these conditions. To circumvent this limitation, several strategies have been developed to make the therapeutic agent achieve the CNS. This narrative will provide an overview of current therapeutic strategies under development to permeate the BBB, and address and unmet need for treatment of the progressive neurological manifestations, which are so prevalent in these inherited lysosomal disorders.

Protein-Based Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems

Nanoparticles have been extensively used as carriers for the delivery of chemicals and biomolecular drugs, such as anticancer drugs and therapeutic proteins. Natural biomolecules, such as proteins, are an attractive alternative to synthetic polymers commonly used in nanoparticle formulation because of their safety. In general, protein nanoparticles offer many advantages, such as biocompatibility and biodegradability. Moreover, the preparation of protein nanoparticles and the corresponding encapsulation process involved mild conditions without the use of toxic chemicals or organic solvents. Protein nanoparticles can be generated using proteins, such as fibroins, albumin, gelatin, gliadine, legumin, 30Kc19, lipoprotein, and ferritin proteins, and are prepared through emulsion, electrospray, and desolvation methods. This review introduces the proteins used and methods used in generating protein nanoparticles and compares the corresponding advantages and disadvantages of each.

Allocolchicinoids bearing a Michael acceptor fragment for possible irreversible binding of tubulin

We describe an attempt to apply the concept of covalent binding towards the highly active allocolchicinoids selected on the basis of SAR analysis of previously synthesized molecules. To achieve the irreversible binding of the agent to the cysteine residues of the colchicine site of tubulin protein, we synthesized a number of new allocolchicinoids bearing the acceptor moiety. Some of the new derivatives possess cytotoxic activity against COLO-357, BxPC-3, HaCaT, and HEK293 cell lines in a low nanomolar range of concentrations. A substoichiometric mode of microtubule assembly inhibition was demonstrated. The most active compounds possess close to colchicine general toxicity on mice.

Nanocomposites as biomolecules delivery agents in nanomedicine

Nanoparticles (NPs) are atomic clusters of crystalline or amorphous structure that possess unique physical and chemical properties associated with a size range of between 1 and 100 nm. Their nano-sized dimensions, which are in the same range as those of vital biomolecules, such as antibodies, membrane receptors, nucleic acids, and proteins, allow them to interact with different structures within living organisms. Because of these features, numerous nanoparticles are used in medicine as delivery agents for biomolecules. However, off-target drug delivery can cause serious side effects to normal tissues and organs. Considering this issue, it is essential to develop bioengineering strategies to significantly reduce systemic toxicity and improve therapeutic effect. In contrast to passive delivery, nanosystems enable to obtain enhanced therapeutic efficacy, decrease the possibility of drug resistance, and reduce side effects of "conventional" therapy in cancers. The present review provides an overview of the most recent (mostly last 3 years) achievements related to different biomolecules used to enable targeting capabilities of highly diverse nanoparticles. These include monoclonal antibodies, receptor-specific peptides or proteins, deoxyribonucleic acids, ribonucleic acids, [DNA/RNA] aptamers, and small molecules such as folates, and even vitamins or carbohydrates.

Lysosomal enzyme replacement therapies: Historical development, clinical outcomes, and future perspectives

Lysosomes and lysosomal enzymes play a central role in numerous cellular processes, including cellular nutrition, recycling, signaling, defense, and cell death. Genetic deficiencies of lysosomal components, most commonly enzymes, are known as "lysosomal storage disorders" or "lysosomal diseases" (LDs) and lead to lysosomal dysfunction. LDs broadly affect peripheral organs and the central nervous system (CNS), debilitating patients and frequently causing fatality. Among other approaches, enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) has advanced to the clinic and represents a beneficial strategy for 8 out of the 50-60 known LDs. However, despite its value, current ERT suffers from several shortcomings, including various side effects, development of "resistance", and suboptimal delivery throughout the body, particularly to the CNS, lowering the therapeutic outcome and precluding the use of this strategy for a majority of LDs. This review offers an overview of the biomedical causes of LDs, their socio-medical relevance, treatment modalities and caveats, experimental alternatives, and future treatment perspectives.