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Zeng P, Ma J, Yang R, Liu YC. Immune Regulation by Ubiquitin Tagging as Checkpoint Code. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2017; 410:215-248. [PMID: 28929193 DOI: 10.1007/82_2017_64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The immune system is equipped with effective machinery to mobilize its activation to defend invading microorganisms, and at the same time, to refrain from attacking its own tissues to maintain immune tolerance. The balance of activation and tolerance is tightly controlled by diverse mechanisms, since breakdown of tolerance could result in disastrous consequences such as the development of autoimmune diseases. One of the mechanisms is by the means of protein ubiquitination, which involves the process of tagging a small peptide ubiquitin to protein substrates. E3 ubiquitin ligases are responsible for catalyzing the final step of ubiquitin-substrate conjugation by specifically recognizing substrates to determine their fates of degradation or functional modification. The ubiquitination process is reversible, which is carried out by deubiquitinating enzymes to release the ubiquitin molecule from the conjugated substrates. Protein ubiquitination and deubiquitination serve as checkpoint codes in many key steps of lymphocyte regulation including the development, activation, differentiation, and tolerance induction. In this chapter, we will discuss a few E3 ligases and deubiquitinating enzymes that are important in controlling immune responses, with emphasis on their roles in T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zeng
- Institute for Immunology, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Jieyu Ma
- Institute for Immunology, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Runqing Yang
- Institute for Immunology, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Yun-Cai Liu
- Institute for Immunology, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China. .,Division of Cell Biology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
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2
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Yang X, Zhang X, Fu ML, Weichselbaum RR, Gajewski TF, Guo Y, Fu YX. Targeting the tumor microenvironment with interferon-β bridges innate and adaptive immune responses. Cancer Cell 2014; 25:37-48. [PMID: 24434209 PMCID: PMC3927846 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2013.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Revised: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Antibodies (Abs) that preferentially target oncogenic receptors have been increasingly used for cancer therapy, but tumors often acquire intrinsic Ab resistance after prolonged and costly treatment. Herein we armed the Ab with IFNβ and observed that it is more potent than the first generation of Ab for controlling Ab-resistant tumors. This strategy controls Ab resistance by rebridging suppressed innate and adaptive immunity in the tumor microenvironment. Mechanistically, Ab-IFNβ therapy primarily and directly targets intratumoral dendritic cells, which reactivate CTL by increasing antigen cross-presentation within the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, blocking PD-L1, which is induced by Ab-IFNβ treatment, overcomes treatment-acquired resistance and completely eradicates established tumors. This study establishes a next-generation Ab-based immunotherapy that targets and eradicates established Ab-resistant tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuanming Yang
- IBP-UC Group for Immunotherapy, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 15 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China; Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Xunmin Zhang
- IBP-UC Group for Immunotherapy, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 15 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China; International Joint Cancer Institute, The Second Military Medical University, New Library Building West 10(th)-11(th) Floor, 800 Xiang Yin Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - May Lynne Fu
- Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Ralph R Weichselbaum
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, The Ludwig Center for Metastasis Research, University of Chicago, 5758 South Maryland Avenue MC 9006, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Thomas F Gajewski
- Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Yajun Guo
- International Joint Cancer Institute, The Second Military Medical University, New Library Building West 10(th)-11(th) Floor, 800 Xiang Yin Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yang-Xin Fu
- IBP-UC Group for Immunotherapy, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 15 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China; Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
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3
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Rustighi A, Zannini A, Tiberi L, Sommaggio R, Piazza S, Sorrentino G, Nuzzo S, Tuscano A, Eterno V, Benvenuti F, Santarpia L, Aifantis I, Rosato A, Bicciato S, Zambelli A, Del Sal G. Prolyl-isomerase Pin1 controls normal and cancer stem cells of the breast. EMBO Mol Med 2013; 6:99-119. [PMID: 24357640 PMCID: PMC3936488 DOI: 10.1002/emmm.201302909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Mammary epithelial stem cells are fundamental to maintain tissue integrity. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are implicated in both treatment resistance and disease relapse, and the molecular bases of their malignant properties are still poorly understood. Here we show that both normal stem cells and CSCs of the breast are controlled by the prolyl-isomerase Pin1. Mechanistically, following interaction with Pin1, Notch1 and Notch4, key regulators of cell fate, escape from proteasomal degradation by their major ubiquitin-ligase Fbxw7α. Functionally, we show that Fbxw7α acts as an essential negative regulator of breast CSCs' expansion by restraining Notch activity, but the establishment of a Notch/Pin1 active circuitry opposes this effect, thus promoting breast CSCs self-renewal, tumor growth and metastasis in vivo. In human breast cancers, despite Fbxw7α expression, high levels of Pin1 sustain Notch signaling, which correlates with poor prognosis. Suppression of Pin1 holds promise in reverting aggressive phenotypes, through CSC exhaustion as well as recovered drug sensitivity carrying relevant implications for therapy of breast cancers.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antineoplastic Agents/therapeutic use
- Breast Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Breast Neoplasms/metabolism
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Cell Cycle Proteins/genetics
- Cell Cycle Proteins/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- F-Box Proteins/genetics
- F-Box Proteins/metabolism
- F-Box-WD Repeat-Containing Protein 7
- Female
- Humans
- Mammary Glands, Human/cytology
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, SCID
- NIMA-Interacting Peptidylprolyl Isomerase
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/cytology
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/metabolism
- Peptidylprolyl Isomerase/antagonists & inhibitors
- Peptidylprolyl Isomerase/genetics
- Peptidylprolyl Isomerase/metabolism
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/metabolism
- Receptor, Notch1/genetics
- Receptor, Notch1/metabolism
- Receptor, Notch4
- Receptors, Notch/genetics
- Receptors, Notch/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- Stem Cells/cytology
- Stem Cells/metabolism
- Transplantation, Heterologous
- Triple Negative Breast Neoplasms/metabolism
- Triple Negative Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Ubiquitin-Protein Ligases/genetics
- Ubiquitin-Protein Ligases/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Rustighi
- Laboratorio Nazionale CIB (LNCIB), Area Science ParkTrieste, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di TriesteTrieste, Italy
| | - Alessandro Zannini
- Laboratorio Nazionale CIB (LNCIB), Area Science ParkTrieste, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di TriesteTrieste, Italy
| | - Luca Tiberi
- Laboratorio Nazionale CIB (LNCIB), Area Science ParkTrieste, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di TriesteTrieste, Italy
| | - Roberta Sommaggio
- Dipartimento di Scienze Oncologiche e Chirurgiche, Università degli Studi di Padova e Istituto Oncologico Veneto IRCCSPadova, Italy
| | - Silvano Piazza
- Laboratorio Nazionale CIB (LNCIB), Area Science ParkTrieste, Italy
| | - Giovanni Sorrentino
- Laboratorio Nazionale CIB (LNCIB), Area Science ParkTrieste, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di TriesteTrieste, Italy
| | - Simona Nuzzo
- Center for Genome Research, Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio EmiliaModena, Italy
| | | | - Vincenzo Eterno
- Oncology Department IRCCS Fondazione Salvatore MaugeriPavia, Italy
| | - Federica Benvenuti
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), Area Science ParkTrieste, Italy
| | - Libero Santarpia
- Translational Research Unit, Istituto Toscano TumoriPrato, Italy
| | - Iannis Aifantis
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Pathology, NYU School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
| | - Antonio Rosato
- Dipartimento di Scienze Oncologiche e Chirurgiche, Università degli Studi di Padova e Istituto Oncologico Veneto IRCCSPadova, Italy
| | - Silvio Bicciato
- Center for Genome Research, Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio EmiliaModena, Italy
| | - Alberto Zambelli
- Oncology Department IRCCS Fondazione Salvatore MaugeriPavia, Italy
| | - Giannino Del Sal
- Laboratorio Nazionale CIB (LNCIB), Area Science ParkTrieste, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di TriesteTrieste, Italy
- Corresponding author: Tel: +39 040 3756801; Fax +39 040 398990; E-mail:
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Sio A, Chehal MK, Tsai K, Fan X, Roberts ME, Nelson BH, Grembecka J, Cierpicki T, Krebs DL, Harder KW. Dysregulated hematopoiesis caused by mammary cancer is associated with epigenetic changes and hox gene expression in hematopoietic cells. Cancer Res 2013; 73:5892-904. [PMID: 23913828 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-0842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is associated with immune dysfunction characterized by the presence of proinflammatory and immunosuppressive cells and factors that contribute to tumor growth and progression. Here we show that mammary tumor growth is associated with defects in hematopoiesis, leading to myeloproliferative-like disease (leukemoid reaction), anemia, and disruption of the bone marrow stem/progenitor compartment. The defects we characterized included impaired erythropoiesis, leukocytosis, loss of early progenitor cells in the bone marrow, and splenic extramedullary hematopoiesis. We established an in vitro model to dissect interactions between mammary cancers and the hematopoietic system. Investigations in this model revealed that granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) produced by mammary tumors can synergize with FLT3L and granulocyte macrophage CSF (GM-CSF) to expand myeloid progenitors and their progeny in culture. Mammary tumor growth was associated with histone methylation changes within lineage-negative c-Kit-positive hematopoietic cells within the bone marrow of tumor-bearing mice. Similarly, parallel histone methylation patterns occurred in cultured bone marrow cells exposed to mammary tumor-conditioned cell culture media. Notably, changes in histone methylation in these cell populations correlated with dysregulated expression of genes controlling hematopoietic lineage commitment and differentiation, including Hox family genes and members of the Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) chromatin-remodeling complex. Together, our results show that mammary tumor-secreted factors induce profound perturbations in hematopoiesis and expression of key hematopoietic regulatory genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Sio
- Authors' Affiliations: Department of Microbiology and Immunology, I3 Research Group, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver; Trev and Joyce Deeley Research Centre, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada; and Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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5
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Hinterleitner R, Gruber T, Pfeifhofer-Obermair C, Lutz-Nicoladoni C, Tzankov A, Schuster M, Penninger JM, Loibner H, Lametschwandtner G, Wolf D, Baier G. Adoptive transfer of siRNA Cblb-silenced CD8+ T lymphocytes augments tumor vaccine efficacy in a B16 melanoma model. PLoS One 2012; 7:e44295. [PMID: 22962608 PMCID: PMC3433477 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2012] [Accepted: 08/01/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitin ligase Cbl-b is an established regulator of T cell immune response thresholds. We recently showed that adoptive cell transfer (ACT) of cblb(-/-) CD8(+) T cells enhances dendritic cell (DC) immunization-mediated anti-tumor effects in immune-competent recipients. However, translation of cblb targeting to clinically applicable concepts requires that inhibition of cblb activity be transient and reversible. Here we provide experimental evidence that inhibition of cblb using chemically synthesized siRNA has such potential. Silencing cblb expression by ex vivo siRNA transfection of polyclonal CD8(+) T cells prior to ACT increased T cell tumor infiltration, significantly delayed tumor outgrowth, and increased survival rates of tumor-bearing mice. As shown by ex vivo recall assays, cblb silencing resulted in significant augmentation of intratumoral T cell cytokine response. ACT of cblb-silenced polyclonal CD8(+) T cells combined with DC-based tumor vaccines predominantly mediated anti-tumor immune responses, whereas no signs of autoimmunity could be detected. Importantly, CBLB silencing in human CD8(+) T cells mirrored the effects observed for cblb-silenced and cblb-deficient murine T cells. Our data validate the concept of enhanced anti-tumor immunity by repetitive ACT of ex vivo cblb siRNA-silenced hyper-reactive CD8(+) T cells as add-on adjuvant therapy to augment the efficacy of existing cancer immunotherapy regimens in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinhard Hinterleitner
- Department of Pharmacology and Genetics, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Thomas Gruber
- Department of Pharmacology and Genetics, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Christina Lutz-Nicoladoni
- Department of Pharmacology and Genetics, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Alexander Tzankov
- Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Josef M. Penninger
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Dominik Wolf
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Medical University Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Gottfried Baier
- Department of Pharmacology and Genetics, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- * E-mail:
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6
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Releasing the brake: targeting Cbl-b to enhance lymphocyte effector functions. Clin Dev Immunol 2012; 2012:692639. [PMID: 22550535 PMCID: PMC3328896 DOI: 10.1155/2012/692639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2011] [Revised: 01/15/2012] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The E3 ubiquitin ligase Cbl-b is an established nonredundant negative regulator of T-cell activation. Cbl-b fine-tunes the activation threshold of T cells and uncouples T cells from their vital need of a costimulatory signal to mount a productive immune response. Accordingly, mice deficient in cblb are prone to autoimmunity and reject tumors. The latter has been described to be mediated via CD8+ T cells, which are hyperactive and more abundant in shrinking tumors of cblb-deficient animals. This might at least also in part be mediated by resistance of cblb-deficient T cells to negative cues exerted by tumor-associated immuno-suppressive factors, such as TGF-β and regulatory T cells (Treg). Experiments using cblb-deficient T cells either alone or in combination with vaccines validate the therapeutic concept of enhancing the efficacy of adoptively transferred lymphocytes to treat malignant tumors. This paper summarizes the current knowledge about the negative regulatory role of Cbl-b in T-cell activation and its potential therapeutic implications for cancer immunotherapy.
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7
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Lutz‐Nicoladoni C, Wallner S, Stoitzner P, Pircher M, Gruber T, Wolf AM, Gastl G, Penninger JM, Baier G, Wolf D. Reinforcement of cancer immunotherapy by adoptive transfer of
cblb
‐deficient CD8
+
T cells combined with a DC vaccine. Immunol Cell Biol 2011; 90:130-4. [DOI: 10.1038/icb.2011.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christina Lutz‐Nicoladoni
- Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
- Internal Medicine V, Hematology and Oncology, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
| | - Stephanie Wallner
- Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
- Internal Medicine V, Hematology and Oncology, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
| | - Patrizia Stoitzner
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
| | - Magdalena Pircher
- Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
- Internal Medicine V, Hematology and Oncology, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
| | - Thomas Gruber
- Department for Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
| | - Anna Maria Wolf
- Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
- Internal Medicine V, Hematology and Oncology, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
| | - Günther Gastl
- Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
- Internal Medicine V, Hematology and Oncology, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
| | - Josef M Penninger
- IMBA, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences Vienna Austria
| | - Gottfried Baier
- Department for Medical Genetics, Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
| | - Dominik Wolf
- Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
- Internal Medicine V, Hematology and Oncology, Innsbruck Medical University Tyrol Austria
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8
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Stromnes IM, Blattman JN, Tan X, Jeevanjee S, Gu H, Greenberg PD. Abrogating Cbl-b in effector CD8(+) T cells improves the efficacy of adoptive therapy of leukemia in mice. J Clin Invest 2010; 120:3722-34. [PMID: 20890046 DOI: 10.1172/jci41991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The clinical use of adoptive immunotherapy with tumor-reactive T cells to treat established cancers is limited in part by the poor in vivo survival and function of the transferred T cells. Although administration of exogenous cytokines such as IL-2 can promote T cell survival, such strategies have many nonspecific activities and are often associated with toxicity. We show here that abrogating expression of Casitas B-lineage lymphoma b (Cbl-b), a negative regulator of lymphocyte activation, in tumor-reactive CD8(+) T cells expanded ex vivo increased the efficacy of adoptive immunotherapy of disseminated leukemia in mice. Mechanistically, Cbl-b abrogation bypassed the requirement for exogenous IL-2 administration for tumor eradication in vivo. In addition, CD8(+) T cells lacking Cbl-b demonstrated a lower threshold for activation, better survival following target recognition and stimulation, and enhanced proliferative responses as a result of both IL-2-dependent and -independent pathways. Importantly, siRNA knockdown of Cbl-b in human CD8(+)CD28- effector T cell clones similarly restored IL-2 production and proliferation following target recognition independent of exogenous IL-2, enhanced IFN-γ production, and increased target avidity. Thus, abrogating Cbl-b expression in effector T cells may improve the efficacy of adoptive therapy of some human malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn M Stromnes
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-6425, USA
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Density of tumour stroma is correlated to outcome after adoptive transfer of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in a murine mammary carcinoma model. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2009; 121:753-63. [PMID: 19789976 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-009-0559-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2009] [Accepted: 09/12/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive immunotherapy shows promise for the treatment of cancer; however, partial or mixed responses remain common outcomes due to the heterogeneity of tumours. We studied three murine mammary tumour lines that express an ovalbumin-tagged version of HER-2/neu and reproducibly undergo complete regression (CR), partial regression (PR), or progressive disease (PD) after adoptive transfer of ovalbumin-specific CD8(+) (OT-I) and CD4(+) (OT-II) T cells. The three tumour lines were implanted in immunocompetent C57Bl/6 host mice, and established tumours were treated by adoptive transfer of naive OT-I and OT-II T cells. Tumours of the CR and PR classes triggered almost indistinguishable T cell responses in terms of activation, proliferation, trafficking to the tumour site, infiltration of tumour stroma, and intratumoural T cell proliferation; however, tumours of the PR class showed reduced infiltration of tumour epithelium by donor T cells. PD responses were associated with early impairment of T cell activation and proliferation in draining lymph node, followed by negligible infiltration of tumour tissue by donor T cells. Histopathological determinants of outcome were investigated through an unsupervised analysis of 64 untreated tumours representing the three response classes. Tumours of the CR class had proportionately more stroma, which had a looser, more collagen-rich histological appearance. Thus, the amount and composition of tumour stroma distinguished successfully (CR) from unsuccessful (PR or PD) outcomes after adoptive T cell transfer, a finding that might facilitate the design of immunotherapy trials for human breast cancer.
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