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Al-Obaidi JR, Yahya Allawi M, Salim Al-Taie B, Alobaidi KH, Al-Khayri JM, Abdullah S, Ahmad-Kamil EI. The environmental, economic, and social development impact of desertification in Iraq: a review on desertification control measures and mitigation strategies. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:440. [PMID: 35595871 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-10102-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The threat of desertification is considered a global concern that occurs in many environments in different parts of the world, where extensive lands are transformed gradually into desert or semi-desert areas, and this causes economic and health issues. Iraq and many other parts of the Middle East are facing desertification threats in the last twenty years. Despite the significance of this issue, relevant reviews are scarce. The removal of vegetation cover, overgrazing, deforestation in times of war, poor irrigation practices and water scarcity are some of the main causes of desertification in Iraq. Fighting desertification requires cooperative efforts including the utilization of innovative practices, biotechnological approaches, restoration of oases, continuous reforestation, and rehabilitation of agricultural lands. The objective of this review article is to discuss the causes of desertification and land degradation in Iraq, highlighting the main natural and human factors involved, and the consequent impact on the national security, economy, society, and health. In addition, it suggests recommendations for policies and actions that can be integrated to mitigate this problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jameel R Al-Obaidi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim 35900, Perak, Malaysia.
| | - Mohammed Yahya Allawi
- Environmental Science Department, College of Environmental Science and Technologies, University of Mosul, 41002, Mosul, Iraq
| | - Bilal Salim Al-Taie
- Environmental Science Department, College of Environmental Science and Technologies, University of Mosul, 41002, Mosul, Iraq
| | - Khalid H Alobaidi
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology, Al-Nahrain University, Baghdad, 64021, Iraq
| | - Jameel M Al-Khayri
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, 31982, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sumaiyah Abdullah
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - E I Ahmad-Kamil
- Malaysian Nature Society (MNS), JKR 641, Jalan Kelantan, Bukit Persekutuan, 50480, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Grilli E, Carvalho SCP, Chiti T, Coppola E, D'Ascoli R, La Mantia T, Marzaioli R, Mastrocicco M, Pulido F, Rutigliano FA, Quatrini P, Castaldi S. Critical range of soil organic carbon in southern Europe lands under desertification risk. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 287:112285. [PMID: 33725659 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Soil quality is fundamental for ecosystem long term functionality, productivity and resilience to current climatic changes. Despite its importance, soil is lost and degraded at dramatic rates worldwide. In Europe, the Mediterranean areas are a hotspot for soil erosion and land degradation due to a combination of climatic conditions, soils, geomorphology and anthropic pressure. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is considered a key indicator of soil quality as it relates to other fundamental soil functions supporting crucial ecosystem services. In the present study, the functional relationships among SOC and other important soil properties were investigated in the topsoil of 38 sites under different land cover and management, distributed over three Mediterranean regions under strong desertification risk, with the final aim to define critical SOC ranges for fast loss of important soil functionalities. The study sites belonged to private and public landowners seeking to adopt sustainable land management practices to support ecosystem sustainability and productivity of their land. Data showed a very clear relationship between SOC concentrations and the other analyzed soil properties: total nitrogen, bulk density, cation exchange capacity, available water capacity, microbial biomass, C fractions associated to particulate organic matter and to the mineral soil component and indirectly with net N mineralization. Below 20 g SOC kg-1, additional changes of SOC concentrations resulted in a steep variation of all the analyzed soil indicators, an order of magnitude higher than the changes occurring between 50 and 100 g SOC kg-1 and 3-4 times the changes observed at 20-50 g SOC kg-1. About half of the study sites showed average SOC concentration of the topsoil centimetres <20 g SOC kg-1. For these areas the level of SOC might hence be considered critical and immediate and effective recovery management plans are needed to avoid complete land degradation in the next future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Grilli
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, via Vivaldi 43, 81100, Caserta, Italy.
| | - Sílvia C P Carvalho
- University of Lisbon, CCIAM (Climate Change Impacts Adaptation & Modelling)/cE3c, Faculty of Sciences, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Tommaso Chiti
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest Systems (DIBAF), University of Tuscia, via San C. De Lellis snc, 01100, Viterbo, Italy.
| | - Elio Coppola
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, via Vivaldi 43, 81100, Caserta, Italy.
| | - Rosaria D'Ascoli
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, via Vivaldi 43, 81100, Caserta, Italy.
| | - Tommaso La Mantia
- Dipartimento Scienze Agrarie e Forestali, Università degli Studi di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Rossana Marzaioli
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, via Vivaldi 43, 81100, Caserta, Italy.
| | - Micòl Mastrocicco
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, via Vivaldi 43, 81100, Caserta, Italy.
| | - Fernando Pulido
- Institute for Dehesa Research. Universidad de Extremadura. 10600, Plasencia, Spain.
| | - Flora Angela Rutigliano
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, via Vivaldi 43, 81100, Caserta, Italy.
| | - Paola Quatrini
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, blg. 16, 90128, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Simona Castaldi
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, via Vivaldi 43, 81100, Caserta, Italy.
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Okpara UT, Fleskens L, Stringer LC, Hessel R, Bachmann F, Daliakopoulos I, Berglund K, Blanco Velazquez FJ, Ferro ND, Keizer J, Kohnova S, Lemann T, Quinn C, Schwilch G, Siebielec G, Skaalsveen K, Tibbett M, Zoumides C. Helping stakeholders select and apply appraisal tools to mitigate soil threats: Researchers' experiences from across Europe. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2020; 257:110005. [PMID: 31989961 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.110005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Soil improvement measures need to be ecologically credible, socially acceptable and economically affordable if they are to enter widespread use. However, in real world decision contexts not all measures can sufficiently meet these criteria. As such, developing, selecting and using appropriate tools to support more systematic appraisal of soil improvement measures in different decision-making contexts represents an important challenge. Tools differ in their aims, ranging from those focused on appraising issues of cost-effectiveness, wider ecosystem services impacts and adoption barriers/opportunities, to those seeking to foster participatory engagement and social learning. Despite the growing complexity of the decision-support tool landscape, comprehensive guidance for selecting tools that are best suited to appraise soil improvement measures, as well as those well-adapted to enable participatory deployment, has generally been lacking. We address this gap using the experience and survey data from an EU-funded project (RECARE: Preventing and REmediating degradation of soils in Europe through land CARE). RECARE applied different socio-cultural, biophysical and monetary appraisal tools to assess the costs, benefits and adoption of soil improvement measures across Europe. We focused on these appraisal tools and evaluated their performance against three broad attributes that gauge their differences and suitability for widespread deployment to aid stakeholder decision making in soil management. Data were collected using an online questionnaire administered to RECARE researchers. Although some tools worked better than others across case studies, the information collated was used to provide guiding strategies for choosing appropriate tools, considering resources and data availability, characterisation of uncertainty, and the purpose for which a specific soil improvement measure is being developed or promoted. This paper provides insights to others working in practical soil improvement contexts as to why getting the tools right matters. It demonstrates how use of the right tools can add value to decision-making in ameliorating soil threats, supporting the sustainable management of the services that our soil ecosystems provide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uche T Okpara
- Sustainability Research Institute, School of Earth and Environment, Faculty of Environment, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK.
| | - Luuk Fleskens
- Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, Netherlands.
| | - Lindsay C Stringer
- Sustainability Research Institute, School of Earth and Environment, Faculty of Environment, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK.
| | - Rudi Hessel
- Soil, Water and Land Use, Wageningen Environmental Research, Wageningen University & Research, Netherlands.
| | - Felicitas Bachmann
- Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Ioannis Daliakopoulos
- Department of Agriculture, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Heraklion, 71410, Greece; School of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Chania, 73100, Greece.
| | - Kerstin Berglund
- Department of Soil and Environment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden.
| | | | - Nicola Dal Ferro
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment, University of Padova, Italy.
| | - Jacob Keizer
- Earth Surface Processes Team, Center for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Silvia Kohnova
- Department of Land and Water Resources Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovak Republic.
| | - Tatenda Lemann
- Sustainability Research Institute, School of Earth and Environment, Faculty of Environment, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK.
| | - Claire Quinn
- Sustainability Research Institute, School of Earth and Environment, Faculty of Environment, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, Leeds, UK.
| | - Gudrun Schwilch
- Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 10, 3012, Bern, Switzerland; Federal Office for the Environment, Soil Section, 3003, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Grzegorz Siebielec
- Department of Soil Science Erosion and Land Protection, Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation, State Research Institute, Pulawy, Poland.
| | - Kamilla Skaalsveen
- Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Frederik A. Dahls vei 20, 1430, Aas, Norway.
| | - Mark Tibbett
- Department of Sustainable Land Management & Soil Research Centre, School of Agricultural Policy and Development, University of Reading, Berkshire RG6 6AR, UK.
| | - Christos Zoumides
- Energy, Environment and Water Research Center, The Cyprus Institute, Cyprus.
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Multifaceted Impacts of Sustainable Land Management in Drylands: A Review. SUSTAINABILITY 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/su8020177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Leventon J, Fleskens L, Claringbould H, Schwilch G, Hessel R. An applied methodology for stakeholder identification in transdisciplinary research. SUSTAINABILITY SCIENCE 2016; 11:763-775. [PMID: 30174742 PMCID: PMC6106094 DOI: 10.1007/s11625-016-0385-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In this paper we present a novel methodology for identifying stakeholders for the purpose of engaging with them in transdisciplinary, sustainability research projects. In transdisciplinary research, it is important to identify a range of stakeholders prior to the problem-focussed stages of research. Early engagement with diverse stakeholders creates space for them to influence the research process, including problem definition, from the start. However, current stakeholder analysis approaches ignore this initial identification process, or position it within the subsequent content-focussed stages of research. Our methodology was designed as part of a research project into a range of soil threats in seventeen case study locations throughout Europe. Our methodology was designed to be systematic across all sites. It is based on a snowball sampling approach that can be implemented by researchers with no prior experience of stakeholder research, and without requiring significant financial or time resources. It therefore fosters transdisciplinarity by empowering physical scientists to identify stakeholders and understand their roles. We describe the design process and outcomes, and consider their applicability to other research projects. Our methodology therefore consists of a two-phase process of design and implementation of an identification questionnaire. By explicitly including a design phase into the process, it is possible to tailor our methodology to other research projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Leventon
- Faculty of Sustainability, Leuphana University, Scharnhorststr. 1, 21335 Lüneburg, Germany
- Sustainability Research Institute, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds, LS2 9JT UK
| | - Luuk Fleskens
- Sustainability Research Institute, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds, LS2 9JT UK
- Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 4, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Heleen Claringbould
- Consult and Research on Participation and Gender in Environmental issues (Corepage), Buys Ballotstraat 35, 3572 ZT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gudrun Schwilch
- Centre for Development and Environment CDE, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 10, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Rudi Hessel
- Team Soil, Water and Land Use, Alterra, Wageningen UR, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Stringer LC, Fleskens L, Reed MS, de Vente J, Zengin M. Participatory evaluation of monitoring and modeling of sustainable land management technologies in areas prone to land degradation. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2014; 54:1022-42. [PMID: 23868445 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-013-0126-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2012] [Accepted: 07/05/2013] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Examples of sustainable land management (SLM) exist throughout the world. In many cases, SLM has largely evolved through local traditional practices and incremental experimentation rather than being adopted on the basis of scientific evidence. This means that SLM technologies are often only adopted across small areas. The DESIRE (DESertIfication mitigation and REmediation of degraded land) project combined local traditional knowledge on SLM with empirical evaluation of SLM technologies. The purpose of this was to evaluate and select options for dissemination in 16 sites across 12 countries. It involved (i) an initial workshop to evaluate stakeholder priorities (reported elsewhere), (ii) field trials/empirical modeling, and then, (iii) further stakeholder evaluation workshops. This paper focuses on workshops in which stakeholders evaluated the performance of SLM technologies based on the scientific monitoring and modeling results from 15 study sites. It analyses workshop outcomes to evaluate how scientific results affected stakeholders' perceptions of local SLM technologies. It also assessed the potential of this participatory approach in facilitating wider acceptance and implementation of SLM. In several sites, stakeholder preferences for SLM technologies changed as a consequence of empirical measurements and modeling assessments of each technology. Two workshop examples are presented in depth to: (a) explore the scientific results that triggered stakeholders to change their views; and (b) discuss stakeholders' suggestions on how the adoption of SLM technologies could be up-scaled. The overall multi-stakeholder participatory approach taken is then evaluated. It is concluded that to facilitate broad-scale adoption of SLM technologies, de-contextualized, scientific generalisations must be given local context; scientific findings must be viewed alongside traditional beliefs and both scrutinized with equal rigor; and the knowledge of all kinds of experts must be recognised and considered in decision-making about SLM, whether it has been formally codified or not. The approach presented in this paper provided this opportunity and received positive feedback from stakeholders.
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Affiliation(s)
- L C Stringer
- School of Earth & Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK,
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Fleskens L, Nainggolan D, Stringer LC. An exploration of scenarios to support sustainable land management using integrated environmental socio-economic models. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2014; 54:1005-21. [PMID: 24263675 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-013-0202-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Scenario analysis constitutes a valuable deployment method for scientific models to inform environmental decision-making, particularly for evaluating land degradation mitigation options, which are rarely based on formal analysis. In this paper we demonstrate such an assessment using the PESERA-DESMICE modeling framework with various scenarios for 13 global land degradation hotspots. Starting with an initial assessment representing land degradation and productivity under current conditions, options to combat instances of land degradation are explored by determining: (1) Which technologies are most biophysically appropriate and most financially viable in which locations; we term these the "technology scenarios"; (2) how policy instruments such as subsidies influence upfront investment requirements and financial viability and how they lead to reduced levels of land degradation; we term these the "policy scenarios"; and (3) how technology adoption affects development issues such as food production and livelihoods; we term these the "global scenarios". Technology scenarios help choose the best technology for a given area in biophysical and financial terms, thereby outlining where policy support may be needed to promote adoption; policy scenarios assess whether a policy alternative leads to a greater extent of technology adoption; while global scenarios demonstrate how implementing technologies may serve wider sustainable development goals. Scenarios are applied to assess spatial variation within study sites as well as to compare across different sites. Our results show significant scope to combat land degradation and raise agricultural productivity at moderate cost. We conclude that scenario assessment can provide informative input to multi-level land management decision-making processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Fleskens
- School of Earth & Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK,
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Schwilch G, Liniger HP, Hurni H. Sustainable land management (SLM) practices in drylands: how do they address desertification threats? ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2014; 54:983-1004. [PMID: 23703582 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-013-0071-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Managing land sustainably is a huge challenge, especially under harsh climatic conditions such as those found in drylands. The socio-economic situation can also pose challenges, as dryland regions are often characterized by remoteness, marginality, low-productive farming, weak institutions, and even conflict. With threats from climate change, disputes over water, competing claims on land, and migration increasing worldwide, the demands for sustainable land management (SLM) measures will only increase in the future. Within the EU-funded DESIRE project, researchers and stakeholders jointly identified existing SLM technologies and approaches in 17 dryland study sites located in the Mediterranean and around the world. In order to evaluate and share this valuable SLM experience, local researchers documented the SLM technologies and approaches in collaboration with land users, utilizing the internationally recognized WOCAT questionnaires. This article provides an analysis of 30 technologies and 8 approaches, enabling an initial evaluation of how SLM addresses prevalent dryland threats, such as water scarcity, soil degradation, vegetation degradation and low production, climate change, resource use conflicts, and migration. Among the impacts attributed to the documented technologies, those mentioned most were diversified and enhanced production and better management of water and soil degradation, whether through water harvesting, improving soil moisture, or reducing runoff. Favorable local-scale cost-benefit relationships were mainly found when considered over the long term. Nevertheless, SLM was found to improve people's livelihoods and prevent further outmigration. More field research is needed to reinforce expert assessments of SLM impacts and provide the necessary evidence-based rationale for investing in SLM.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Schwilch
- Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 10, 3012, Bern, Switzerland,
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