A phase II study of gemcitabine and oxaliplatin (Oxigem) in unresectable gall bladder cancer

Management of intrahepatic and perihilar cholangiocarcinomas: Guidelines of the French Association for the Study of the Liver (AFEF)

Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA) is the second most common malignant primary liver cancer. iCCA may develop on an underlying chronic liver disease and its incidence is growing in relation with the epidemics of obesity and metabolic diseases. In contrast, perihilar cholangiocarcinoma (pCCA) may follow a history of chronic inflammatory diseases of the biliary tract. The initial management of CCAs is often complex and requires multidisciplinary expertise. The French Association for the Study of the Liver wished to organize guidelines in order to summarize the best evidence available about several key points in iCCA and pCCA. These guidelines have been elaborated based on the level of evidence available in the literature and each recommendation has been analysed, discussed and voted by the panel of experts. They describe the epidemiology of CCA as well as how patients with iCCA or pCCA should be managed from diagnosis to treatment. The most recent developments of personalized medicine and use of targeted therapies are also highlighted.

Outcomes of Palliative Chemotherapy for Ampulla of Vater Adenocarcinoma: A Multicenter Cohort Study

Background/Aims

: Palliative chemotherapy (PC) is not standardized for patients with advanced ampulla of Vater adenocarcinoma (AA). This multicenter, retrospective study evaluated first-line PC outcomes in patients with AA.

Methods

: Patients diagnosed with AA between January 2010 and December 2020 who underwent PC were enrolled from 10 institutions. Overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) according to the chemotherapy regimen were analyzed.

Results

: Of 255 patients (mean age, 64.0±10.0 years; male, 57.6%), 14 (5.5%) had locally advanced AA and 241 (94.5%) had metastatic AA. Gemcitabine plus cisplatin (GP) was administered as first-line chemotherapy to 192 patients (75.3%), whereas capecitabine plus oxaliplatin (CAPOX) was administered to 39 patients (15.3%). The median OS of all patients was 19.8 months (95% confidence interval [CI], 17.3 to 22.3), and that of patients who received GP and CAPOX was 20.4 months (95% CI, 17.2 to 23.6) and 16.0 months (95% CI, 11.2 to 20.7), respectively. The median PFS of GP and CAPOX patients were 8.4 months (95% CI, 7.1 to 9.7) and 5.1 months (95% CI, 2.5 to 7.8), respectively. PC for AA demonstrated improved median outcomes in both OS and PFS compared to conventional bile duct cancers that included AA.

Conclusions

: While previous studies have shown mixed prognostic outcomes when AA was analyzed together with other biliary tract cancers, our study unveils a distinct clinical prognosis specific to AA on a large scale with systemic anticancer therapy. These findings suggest that AA is a distinct type of tumor, different from other biliary tract cancers, and AA itself could be expected to have a favorable response to PC.

Development and validation of simultaneous quantification method for gemcitabine and betulinic acid: augmenting industrial application

Combinatorial treatment utilizing a nucleoside analogue gemcitabine (GEM), with a characteristic pentacyclic triterpenoid betulinic acid (BET), has exhibited empowering adequacy in the therapy of cancer. It lessens the advancement of collagen and upgrades the saturation of tumour medicines. With the advancement in nanotechnology, the co-loaded formulation urges for a validated method of estimation. The purposed work entails a robust, simple, and economical analytical method for the simultaneous estimation of GEM and BET through RP-HPLC. Orthophosphoric acid (0.1%)-acetonitrile was considered as the mobile phase for the detection of GEM and BET at 248 nm and 210 nm with retention times of 5 min and 13 min, respectively. The method was further validated as per the regulatory guidelines with all the parameters found within the limit. The developed method with adequate resolution and quantification was found to be linear, accurate, precise, robust, and stable with an intra- and inter-day variability of less than 2%. The method was found specific for GEM and BET with no matrix interference of drug-spiked FBS samples. To demonstrate the applicability of the developed method, a nano-formulation containing GEM and BET was prepared and assessed for various parameters including encapsulation efficiency, loading efficiency, drug release, and drug stability. The method developed can be a possible tool for the simultaneous quantification of GEM-BET in analytical and biological samples.

Pathological complete response achieved by gemcitabine plus cisplatin therapy for initially unresectable advanced gallbladder cancer: a case report

Background

Conversion surgery for initially unresectable gallbladder cancer is rarely performed due to the low response rate for systemic chemotherapy, and a pathological complete response is seldom achieved.

Case presentation

A 67-year-old woman with jaundice was referred to our hospital and diagnosed with unresectable gallbladder cancer with extra-regional lymph node metastasis after examinations. After biliary decompression, gemcitabine plus cisplatin therapy was started. The tumor marker levels markedly decreased, and imaging studies revealed a reduction in the primary tumor and metastatic lymph nodes. The primary tumor and metastatic lymph node were still shrunk at 4 years after the start of gemcitabine plus cisplatin therapy, so we decided to perform conversion surgery. Gallbladder bed resection and lymph node dissection were performed. The pathological findings of the resected specimen showed only partial fibrosis in the gallbladder wall and no malignant findings in the dissected lymph nodes, indicating a pathological complete response. As of 24 months after the operation, she is alive without recurrence.

Conclusion

Although there have been only a few reports of conversion surgery for initially unresectable gallbladder cancer, it may be worthwhile to perform chemotherapy with the potential goal of subsequent conversion surgery.

Hepatic Arterial Infusion Chemotherapy with Oxaliplatin and 5-Fluorouracil for Advanced Gallbladder Cancer

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess the safety and efficacy of hepatic arterial infusion chemotherapy (HAIC) with oxaliplatin and 5-fluorouracil for patients with advanced gallbladder cancer (GBC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-six patients with advanced GBC, who underwent HAIC with oxaliplatin and 5-fluorouracil from January 2012 to July 2019, were enrolled in this retrospective study. The HAIC regimen consisted of infusions of oxaliplatin at 40 mg/m² for 2 h, followed by 5-fluorouracil at 800 mg/m² for 22 h on days 1-3 every 3-4 weeks. A maximum of six cycles of HAIC were applied for tumor control patients followed by maintenance with oral capecitabine or S-1. Overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), tumor response, and adverse events were investigated.

RESULTS

Six of the 26 patients (23.1%) had failed systemic chemotherapy, 8/26 (30.8%) patients had failed various local therapies, and 9/26 (34.6%) patients had contraindications to systemic chemotherapy. The median OS was 13.5 months, and the median PFS was 10.0 months. The overall response rate was 69.2% (18/26), and disease control rate was 92.3% (24/26). Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) ≥ 10 U/ml (p = 0.003) and carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA19-9) ≥ 200 U/ml (p = 0.000) were independent risk factors for decreased survival. The most frequent Grade 3 or 4 treatment-related adverse event was liver dysfunction (4, 15.4%).

CONCLUSION

HAIC with oxaliplatin and 5-fluorouracil is an acceptable and well-tolerated treatment for advanced gallbladder cancer even for patients in whom systemic chemotherapy had failed or is contraindicated.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 2, Observation Study with Dramatic Effect.

Long term recurrence free survival in a stage IV gallbladder cancer treated with chemotherapy plus trastuzumab and salvage liver resection

Surgery is the only treatment for biliary tract cancer with long term survival. Unfortunately, most patients are diagnosed at stage IV with distant metastases. In these circumstances, life expectancy is less than one year due to aggressive tumour biology and a lack of effective systemic therapies. HER2 overexpression or amplification is predominantly seen in extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma and gallbladder cancer (10–18%) and rarely in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (1%). Trastuzumab is a monoclonal antibody that targets HER-2. We present a clinical case with a stage IV gallbladder cancer (liver and interaortocaval lymph node metastases), which presented progression during first-line chemotherapy treatment, which prompted a change in therapy to study the Her 2/Neu mutation which showed an intense positive overexpression. A combination of HER2/Neu-directed therapy (Trastuzumab) with second-line chemotherapy, was able to achieve a long term complete radiological, metabolic, and biochemical response. A curative intention surgery was performed and the patient is alive and recurrence-free at five years. To the best of our knowledge, we present a case which is the first report of a patient with a Stage IV gallbladder cancer who achieved a five-year survival without recurrence after a conversion therapy combining chemotherapy plus Trastuzumab and radical salvage surgery.

Pharmacotherapeutic options for biliary tract cancer: current standard of care and new perspectives

Introduction: Biliary tract cancer (BTC), which comprises gallbladder cancer, ampullary cancer, and cholangiocarcinoma, is a rare and heterogeneous entity, with limited approved therapeutic options. However, interest in this disease has grown exponentially in recent years, as a mounting body of evidence has shed light on the complex molecular and microenvironmental background of BTC, and clinical investigations have explored a variety of new agents and combinations, with promising results.Areas covered: This review describes the standard of care in advanced BTC and summarizes the most recent evidence available on the pharmacological treatment of resected and advanced disease, focusing on chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy.Expert opinion: The therapeutic armamentarium of BTC has made radical progress after almost a decade of very few positive results. Phase-III evidence now supports the use of adjuvant capecitabine after resection of localized disease, while investigations into improved regimens in the advanced setting are underway, exploring alternative options to the standard gemcitabine-cisplatin doublet. The first positive phase-III trial supports the use of the mFOLFOX6 regimen as a second-line chemotherapy. Targeted therapy against specific genomic alterations can combine with chemotherapy in specific subsets of patients. Despite recent advancements, conducting clinical trials for BTC is still a real challenge.

A case of extrahepatic bile duct cancer with distant metastases showing pathological complete response to treatment combining gemcitabine and cisplatin

The patient was a 69-year-old female with a chief complaint of yellow staining of her urine. A detailed physical examination and laboratory tests were carried out, and as a result, her condition was diagnosed as unresectable advanced extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma with liver metastases. Chemotherapy using gemcitabine + cisplatin was initiated, and computed tomography after six cycles revealed that the liver metastases had disappeared, and that a partial response was achieved in the primary tumor. After tan cycles, a pylorus-preserving pancreaticoduodenectomy was performed as conversion surgery, and as a result, a pathological complete response was achieved in the primary tumor. After the primary lesion was resected, we were able to start an adjuvant chemotherapy immediately. Approximately 19 months have passed since the surgery, and the patient is currently alive and recurrence-free. If an improvement of the outcomes of chemotherapy in unresectable advanced biliary tract carcinomas is achieved in the future, there could be an increase in the number of treatment-responsive cases like the one reported in this study. Accumulating a large number of cases successfully treated by conversion surgery, and conducting a detailed analysis of the postoperative course, may help design adequate treatment strategies.

A pathological complete response after combined chemotherapy of gemcitabine and S-1 in advanced biliary tract cancer with para-aortic lymph nodes metastasis: a case report

Background

Biliary tract cancer is a rare malignancy that carries poor prognosis. Complete surgical resection is the only curable treatment. However, biliary tract cancer patients are often diagnosed with advanced stages and treated in systemic chemotherapy or palliative treatment settings rather than curative surgery.

Case presentation

This case report describes a pathological complete response of advanced biliary tract cancer achieved after 2 years of intensive combined chemotherapy with gemcitabine and S-1. A 70-year-old female patient who developed severe stenosis in the middle common bile duct with para-aortic lymph nodes swelling was diagnosed with advanced extrahepatic biliary tract cancer that includes metastatic para-aortic lymph nodes and treated with combined chemotherapy of gemcitabine and S-1. After 32 courses of the combined chemotherapy, substantial shrinkage of these enlarged lymph nodes were confirmed and she underwent pylorus-preserving pancreaticoduodenectomy. The pathological examination revealed no viable neoplastic cells in the common bile duct or lymph nodes. She did not receive any further adjuvant chemotherapy. No recurrent lesions have been detected for 48 months after the primary surgery.

Conclusions

This case shed light on the probability of conversion and/or adjuvant surgery for biliary tract cancer with novel systemic chemotherapy regimens.

Gastrointestinal cancers in India: Treatment perspective

GI cancer is not one cancer but is a term for the group of cancers that affect the digestive system including gastric cancer (GC), colorectal cancer (CRC), hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), esophageal cancer (EC), and pancreatic cancer (PC). Overall, the GI cancers are responsible for more cancers and more deaths from cancer than any other organ. 5 year survival of these cancers remains low compared to western world. Unlike the rest of the world where organ based specialities hepatobiliary, pancreatic, colorectal and esophagogastric exist, these cancers are managed in India by either a gastrointestinal surgeons, surgical oncologist, or a general surgeon with varying outcomes. The aim of this review was to collate data on GI cancers in indian continent. In colorectal cancers, data from tertiary care centres identifies the unique problem of mucinous and signet colorectal cancer. Results of rectal cancer resection in terms of technique (intersphincteric resection, extralevator aper, minimal invasive approach) to be comparable with world literature. However long term outcome and data regarding colon cancers and nationally is needed. Gastric cancer at presentation are advanced and in surgically resected patients, there is need for a trial to compare chemoradiation vs chemotherapy alone to prevent loco regional recurrence. Data on minimal invasive gastric cancer surgery may be sparse for the same reason. Theree is a lot of data on surgical techniques and perioperatve outcomes in pancreatic cancer. There is a high volume of locally advanced gallbladder cancers with efforts on to decide whether neoadjuvant chemotherapy or neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy is better for down staging. Considering GI cancers, a heterogeneous disease with site specific treatment options and variable outcomes, the overall data and outcomes are extremely variable. Young patients with pathology unique to the Indian subcontinent (for example, signet ring rectal cancer, GBCs) need focussed attention. Solution for such pathology needs to come from the Indian continent itself. Joint efforts to improve outcomes for GI cancer can be integrated under the national cancer grid program.

Technical Aspects of Gallbladder Cancer Surgery

In this review, the authors present an updated description of gallbladder cancer in 2 sections based on presentation: disease that presents incidentally following laparoscopic cholecystectomy and malignancy that is suspected preoperatively. Elements pertaining to technical aspects of surgical resection provide the critical focus of this review and are discussed in the context of evidence-based literature on gallbladder cancer today.

Indian Council of Medical Research consensus document for the management of gall bladder cancer

The document is based on consensus among the experts and best available evidence pertaining to Indian population and is meant for practice in India.

All postcholecystectomy gallbladder specimens should be opened and examined carefully by the operating surgeon and be sent for histopathological examination.

All “incidental” gall bladder cancers (GBCs) picked up on histopathological examination should have an expert opinion.

Evaluation of a patient with early GBC should include essential tests: A computed tomography (CT) scan (multi-detector or helical) of the abdomen and pelvis for staging with a CT chest or chest X-ray, and complete blood counts, renal and liver function tests. magnetic resonance imaging/positron emission tomography (PET)-CT are not recommended for all patients.

For early stage disease (up to Stage IVA), surgery is recommended. The need for adjuvant treatment would be guided by the histopathological analysis of the resected specimen.

Patients with Stage IVB/metastatic disease must be assessed for palliative e.g. endoscopic or radiological intervention, chemotherapy versus best supportive care on an individual basis. These patients do not require extensive workup outside of a clinical trial setting.

There is an urgent need for multicenter trials from India covering various aspects of epidemiology (viz., identification of population at high-risk, organized follow-up), clinical management (viz., bile spill during surgery, excision of all port sites, adjuvant/neoadjuvant therapy) and basic research (viz., what causes GBC).

Systemic therapy of cholangiocarcinoma: From chemotherapy to targeted therapies

Cholangiocarcinomas (CCA) are rare tumors of the liver with poor prognosis. The standard of care in patients with unresectable tumors or metastatic disease is combination chemotherapy (CT) with gemcitabine and cisplatin. Targeted therapies inhibiting EGFR, VEGF, MEK and others are broadly tested in CCA but to date, the existing data from randomized and nonrandomized trials do not justify the application of small molecules outside of clinical trials. In clinical practice, many patients receive second-line CT after failure of gemcitabine/cisplatin, although there is so far no evidence to support second-line CT. This review summarizes current chemotherapy protocols and ongoing studies, including conventional chemotherapy and targeted therapies.

Gall bladder carcinoma: Aggressive malignancy with protean loco-regional and distant spread

The most common malignancy of biliary tract is gallbladder cancer (GBC) which is the third most common cancer in gastrointestinal tract. It is a lethal disease for most patients in spite of growing awareness and improved diagnostic techniques. GBC has a very poor prognosis and the 5 year survival rate is < 10%. Although etiology of the carcinoma of the gallbladder is still obscure, various factors have been implicated, cholelithiasis being the most frequent. The incidence of GBC worldwide is based on the gender, geography and ethnicity which suggest that both genetic and environmental factors can cause GBC. The major route of spread of gallbladder cancer (GC) is loco-regional rather than distant. It spreads by lymphatic, vascular, neural, intraperitoneal, and intraductal routes. Sonography is usually the most common imaging test to evaluate symptoms of biliary tract disease including suspected GC. With recent advances in imaging modalities like multi-detector computed tomography (CT) scanners, magnetic resonance imaging-positron emission tomography/CT diagnosis of gallbladder cancer has improved. Studies have also targeted molecular and genetic pathways. Treatment options have included extended and radical surgeries and adjuvant chemotherapy. This review article deals in detail with important aspects of carcinoma gallbladder and its manifestations and challenges. Role of various imaging modalities in characterization and accurate staging has been discussed. The loco-regional spread of this aggressive malignancy is dealt explicitly.

Identification of active chemotherapy regimens in advanced biliary tract carcinoma: a review of chemotherapy trials in the past two decades

Biliary tract carcinoma is a rare malignancy. We performed a comprehensive analysis of published prospective clinical trials in advanced biliary tract carcinoma in an attempt to identify active regimens in this setting. We searched PubMed and abstracts presented at the American Society of Clinical Oncology, Gastrointestinal Cancer Symposium, European Society of Medical Oncology and European Cancer Organization conferences for clinical trials in this disease. We found 83 trials. The effect of gemcitabine on overall survival benefit showed a strong trend (p = 0.014) and an improvement in progression-free survival (p = 0.003). Gemcitabine-based regimens containing 5-fluorouracil showed a trend toward an improved overall survival (p = 0.047) relative to platinum agents. Our findings support gemcitabine as the chemotherapy backbone for the treatment of patients with cholangiocarcinoma. Gemcitabine plus 5-fluorouracil combinations warrant further investigations.

Cisplatin/gemcitabine or oxaliplatin/gemcitabine in the treatment of advanced biliary tract cancer: a systematic review

Cisplatin/gemcitabine association has been a standard of care for first-line regimen in advanced biliary tract cancer nevertheless oxaliplatin/gemcitabine regimen is frequently preferred. Because comparative effectiveness in clinical outcomes of cisplatin- versus oxaliplatin-containing chemotherapy is not available, a systematic review of studies assessing cisplatin/gemcitabine or oxaliplatin/gemcitabine chemotherapies in advanced biliary tract cancer was performed. Published studies evaluating cisplatin/gemcitabine or oxaliplatin/gemcitabine in advanced biliary tract cancer were included. Each study was weighted according to the number of patients included. The primary objective was to assess weighted median of medians overall survival (mOS) reported for both regimens. Secondary goals were to assess weighted median of medians progression-free survival (mPFS) and toxic effects were pooled and compared within each arm. Thirty-three studies involving 1470 patients were analyzed. In total, 771 and 699 patients were treated by cisplatin/gemcitabine and oxaliplatin/gemcitabine, respectively. Weighted median of mOS was 9.7 months in cisplatin group and 9.5 months in oxaliplatin group. Cisplatin-based chemotherapy was significantly associated with more grade 3 and 4 asthenia, diarrhea, liver toxicity, and hematological toxicity. Sensitivity analysis including only the studies with the standard regimen of cisplatin (25-35 mg/m(2) administered on days 1 and 8) showed that the weighted median of mOS increased from 9.7 to 11.7 months but Gem/CDDP regimen remained more toxic than Gemox regimen. These results suggest that the Gem/CDDP regimen with cisplatin (25-35 mg/m(2)) administered on days 1 and 8 is associated with survival advantage than Gemox regimen but with addition of toxicity.

Advanced biliary tract carcinomas: a retrospective multicenter analysis of first and second-line chemotherapy

Background

Gemcitabine/Cisplatin (Gem/CDDP) combination has demonstrated a clear survival advantage over gemcitabine alone and has become a new standard in advanced Biliary Tract Carcinoma (aBTC). However, Gemcitabine/Oxaliplatin (GEMOX) combination and Gemcitabine/Carboplatin (Gem/Carb) combination regimens have shown efficacy in phase II trials and there is no comparative study between different platinum salts.

We assessed the efficacy and safety of different platinum-based chemotherapies at first line in aBTC patients. We also analysed the second-line chemotherapy.

Methods

Sixty-four consecutive patients with aBTC diagnosed between 1998 and 2010 were included for analysis. At first line chemotherapy, 44 patients received one day GEMOX regimen (gemcitabine 1000 mg/m² and oxaliplatin 100 mg/m² Day 1, every 2 weeks), and 20 patients received Gem/Carb regimen (gemcitabine at 1000 mg/m² Days 1 and 8 with carboplatin delivered according to an area-under-the-curve (AUC) 5 at day 1, every 3 weeks). At second line, a total of 16 patients received a fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy.

Results

With GEMOX regimen, median progression-free survival (PFS) was 3.7 months (95%CI, 2.4 to 5) and median overall survival (OS) was 10.5 months (95%CI, 6.4 to14.7). The main toxicity was peripheral neuropathy (20% grade 2 and 7% grade 3). Grade 3/4 haematological toxicities were rare.

With Gem/Carb regimen, PFS was 2.5 months (95%CI, 2.1 to 3.7) and OS was 4.8 months (95%CI, 3.7 to 5.8). The main grade 3/4 toxicities were haematological: anaemia (45%), thrombocytopenia (45%), and neutropenia (40%).

At second-line, fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy was feasible in only a fourth of the patients. The median OS was 5.3 months (95%CI, 4.1 to 6.6), and median PFS was 4.0 months (95%CI, 2.6 to 5.5).

Conclusions

One day GEMOX regimen has a favourable toxicity profile and could be an alternative to standard Gem/CDDP regimen, in particular in unfit patients for CDDP.

At second-line, selective patients may benefit from fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy.

Early relapse of unresectable gallbladder cancer after discontinuation of gemcitabine monotherapy administered for 5 years in a patient who had complete response to the treatment

The tumor shrinkage effect of gemcitabine is considered to be limited in cases of advanced gallbladder cancer, and there are few reports of complete response to gemcitabine therapy in patients with this cancer. Therefore, the treatment continuation strategy in these patients, after a complete response has been achieved, still remains to be established. Here, we present the case of a 77-year-old patient with unresectable gallbladder cancer, who after showing complete response to gemcitabine monotherapy administered for 5 years, showed early relapse within only 11 months of discontinuation of the drug. Thus, it is necessary to establish a suitable treatment continuation strategy for patients who show complete response to gemcitabine treatment.

A Multicenter Phase II Trial of Gemcitabine Plus Oxaliplatin in Unresectable Gallbladder Cancer

Background/Aims

No standard chemotherapy has been established for advanced gallbladder cancer. The authors studied the activity and tolerability of a gemcitabine and oxaliplatin (GEMOX) combination in unresectable gallbladder cancer (GBC).

Methods

Adult patients with pathologically confirmed unresectable GBC were prospectively recruited at three centers. No patient had received prior chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Patients received cycles of gemcitabine at 1,000 mg/m² on day 1, followed by oxaliplatin at 100 mg/m² on day 2, every 2 weeks. The primary study endpoint was time to progression.

Results

Forty patients with unresectable GBC were enrolled. The median age was 60 years (range, 38 to 79 years). All patients showed good performance status. Of the 33 analyzable patients, 12 achieved partial response (36%), 17 stable disease (52%), and four progressive disease (12%). No patient achieved a complete response. The tumor control rate was 88%. At a median follow-up of 6.8 months, the median time to progression was 5.3 months (95% confidence interval [CI], 3.7 to 6.9), and median overall survival was 6.8 months (95% CI, 6.1 to 7.5). Nine of the 40 patients (23%) experienced at least a grade-3 adverse event, but no patient experienced a grade-4 adverse event.

Conclusions

GEMOX combination therapy is a feasible option and is well tolerated in unresectable GBC.

Recent advances in systemic therapies and radiotherapy for gallbladder cancer

Adjuvant treatment is not routine following resection for gallbladder cancer as most regimens have low response rates. In the palliative setting, recent advances have been made regarding combination chemotherapies and both gemcitabine/cisplatin and gemcitabine/oxaliplatin appear to be superior to single-agent 5FU, which has very little efficacy in this disease. There are isolated reports of dramatic responses to targeted monoclonal agents. The role of radiotherapy has recently been revisited, however, its effectiveness when patients are adequately surgically treated remains to be demonstrated.

Biliary tract carcinomas: from chemotherapy to targeted therapy

Biliary tract carcinomas (BTC) are a group of tumours arising from the epithelial cells of intra- and extra-hepatic biliaryducts and the gallbladder, characterised by a poor prognosis. Surgery is the only curative procedure, but the risk of recurrence is high and furthermore, the majority of patients present with unresectable disease at the time of diagnosis. Systemic therapy is the mainstay of treatment for patients who present recurrent or metastatic disease. Progress has been made in the last decade to identify the most effective chemotherapy regimens, with the recent recommendation of the combination of gemcitabine-cisplatin as the standard schedule. Comprehension of the molecular basis of cholangiocarcinogenesis and tumour progression has recently led to the experimentation of targeted therapies in patients with BTC, demonstrating promising results. In this review we will discuss the clinical experience with systemic treatment for BTC, focusing on future directions with targeted therapies.

The pivotal role of intracellular calcium in oxaliplatin-induced inhibition of neurite outgrowth but not cell death in differentiated PC12 cells

The antineoplastic efficacy of oxaliplatin, a widely used anticancer drug, is restricted by its adverse effects such as peripheral neuropathy. Infusing a combination of calcium gluconate and magnesium sulfate (Ca/Mg) suppresses the acute neurotoxic side effects of oxaliplatin, although the mechanism is unclear. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of oxaliplatin-induced neurotoxicity and the effects of Ca/Mg against this toxicity, we examined the effect of Ca/Mg on oxaliplatin-induced inhibition of neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells, a commonly used neuronal cell model. Oxaliplatin and oxalate suppressed nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced neurite outgrowth and reduced the NGF-mediated increase in the intracellular calcium concentration [Ca(2+)](i). A calcium-chelating agent, BAPTA/AM, also exhibited similar inhibitory effects on neurite outgrowth and [Ca(2+)](i). The addition of Ca/Mg attenuated these inhibitions induced by oxaliplatin and oxalate. The NGF-induced upregulation of growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) was suppressed by oxaliplatin and oxalate. Oxaliplatin, but not oxalate, suppressed NGF-stimulated extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation, and this inhibition was not affected by Ca/Mg. Ca/Mg did not modify the oxaliplatin-induced loss of cell viability or apoptosis in PC12 or HCT-116 cells, a human colorectal cancer cell line. These results suggest that the inhibition of neurite outgrowth but not tumor cell death induced by oxaliplatin is partly associated with reductions in [Ca(2+)](i) and GAP-43 expression, and this inhibition was suppressed by the addition of Ca/Mg. Therefore, it may be assumed that Ca/Mg is useful for protecting against oxaliplatin-induced neurotoxicity without reducing the antitumor activity of oxaliplatin.

Best supportive care compared with chemotherapy for unresectable gall bladder cancer: a randomized controlled study

PURPOSE

We designed this study to evaluate efficacy of modified gemcitabine and oxaliplatin (mGEMOX) over best supportive care (BSC) or fluorouracil (FU) and folinic acid (FA) in unresectable gall bladder cancer (GBC).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients with unresectable GBC were enrolled for single center randomized study. Arm A, BSC; arm B, FU 425 mg/m(2) and FA 20 mg/m(2) intravenous (IV) bolus weekly for 30 weeks (FUFA); arm C, gemcitabine 900 mg/m(2) and oxaliplatin 80 mg/m(2) IV infusion on days 1 and 8 every 3 weeks for maximum of six cycles. Eighty-one patients were randomly assigned, arms A (n = 27), B (n = 28), and C (n = 26).

RESULTS

Complete response plus partial response in the three groups was 0 (0%), four (14.3%), and eight (30.8%) respectively (P < .001). Two patients in the mGEMOX arm and one patient in the FUFA arm underwent curative resection after chemotherapy. One patient in the mGEMOX arm had complete pathologic response. Median overall survival (OS) was 4.5, 4.6, and 9.5 months for the BSC, FUFA, and mGEMOX arms (P = .039), respectively. Progression-free survival (PFS) was 2.8, 3.5, and 8.5 months for the three groups (P < .001). There was no difference in grade 3/4 toxicities in the chemotherapy arms except transaminitis, which was more prevalent in mGEMOX arm (P = .04). Two patients in the FUFA arm and 10 patients in the mGEMOX arm had grade 3 or 4 myelosuppression. Two patients in the mGEMOX group had neutropenic fever that resolved with antibiotics.

CONCLUSION

This randomized controlled trial confirmed the efficacy of chemotherapy (mGEMOX) compared with BSC and FUFA in improving OS and PFS in unresectable GBC.

Drug transporter pharmacogenetics in nucleoside-based therapies

This article focuses on the different types of transporter proteins that have been implicated in the influx and efflux of nucleoside-derived drugs currently used in the treatment of cancer, viral infections (i.e., AIDS) and other conditions, including autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Genetic variations in nucleoside-derived drug transporter proteins encoded by the gene families SLC15, SLC22, SLC28, SLC29, ABCB, ABCC and ABCG will be specifically considered. Variants known to affect biological function are summarized, with a particular emphasis on those for which clinical correlations have already been established. Given that relatively little is known regarding the genetic variability of the players involved in determining nucleoside-derived drug bioavailability, it is anticipated that major challenges will be faced in this area of research.