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Pereira GDN, Seribelli AA, Campioni F, Gomes CN, Tiba-Casas MR, Medeiros MIC, Rodrigues DDP, Falcão JP. High levels of multidrug-resistant isolates of genetically similar Salmonella 1,4, [5],12:I:- from Brazil between 1983 and 2020. J Med Microbiol 2024; 73. [PMID: 38375878 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.001792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction. Salmonella 1,4, [5],12:i:- strains with different antimicrobial resistance profiles have been associated with foodborne disease outbreaks in several countries. In Brazil, S. 1,4, [5],12:i:- was identified as one of the most prevalent serovars in São Paulo State during 2004-2020.Gap Statement. However, few studies have characterized this serovar in Brazil.Aim. This study aimed to determine the antimicrobial resistance profiles of S. 1,4, [5],12:i:- strains isolated from different sources in Southeast Brazil and compare their genetic diversity.Methodology. We analysed 113 S. 1,4, [5],12:i:- strains isolated from humans (n=99), animals (n=7), food (n=5) and the environment (n=2) between 1983 and 2020. Susceptibility testing against 13 antimicrobials was performed using the disc diffusion method for all the strains. Plasmid resistance genes and mutations in the quinolone resistance-determining regions were identified in phenotypically fluoroquinolone-resistant strains. Molecular typing was performed using enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus PCR (ERIC-PCR) for all strains and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) for 40 selected strains.Results. Of the 113 strains, 54.87 % were resistant to at least one antimicrobial. The highest resistance rates were observed against ampicillin (51.33 %), nalidixic acid (39.82 %) and tetracycline (38.05 %). Additionally, 39 (34.51 %) strains were classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR). Nine fluoroquinolone-resistant strains exhibited the gyrA mutation (Ser96→Tyr96) and contained the qnrB gene. The 113 strains were grouped into two clusters using ERIC-PCR, and most of strains were present in one cluster, with a genetic similarity of ≥80 %. Finally, 40 strains were typed as ST19 using MLST.Conclusion. The prevalence of MDR strains is alarming because antimicrobial treatment against these strains may lead to therapeutic failure. Furthermore, the ERIC-PCR and MLST results suggested that most strains belonged to one main cluster. Thus, a prevalent subtype of Salmonella 1,4, [5],12:i:- strains has probably been circulating among different sources in São Paulo, Brazil, over decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovana do Nascimento Pereira
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto (FCFRP), Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas (DACTB), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Amanda Aparecida Seribelli
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto (FCFRP), Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas (DACTB), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular e Bioagentes Patogênicos, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Fábio Campioni
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto (FCFRP), Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas (DACTB), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Departamento de Física e Ciência Interdisciplinar, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Carolina Nogueira Gomes
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto (FCFRP), Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas (DACTB), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Juliana Pfrimer Falcão
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto (FCFRP), Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas (DACTB), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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Arnold W, Blum A, Branyan J, Bruton TA, Carignan CC, Cortopassi G, Datta S, DeWitt J, Doherty AC, Halden RU, Harari H, Hartmann EM, Hrubec TC, Iyer S, Kwiatkowski CF, LaPier J, Li D, Li L, Muñiz Ortiz JG, Salamova A, Schettler T, Seguin RP, Soehl A, Sutton R, Xu L, Zheng G. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: A Chemical Class of Emerging Concern. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:7645-7665. [PMID: 37157132 PMCID: PMC10210541 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), a large class of chemicals that includes high production volume substances, have been used for decades as antimicrobials, preservatives, and antistatic agents and for other functions in cleaning, disinfecting, personal care products, and durable consumer goods. QAC use has accelerated in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the banning of 19 antimicrobials from several personal care products by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2016. Studies conducted before and after the onset of the pandemic indicate increased human exposure to QACs. Environmental releases of these chemicals have also increased. Emerging information on adverse environmental and human health impacts of QACs is motivating a reconsideration of the risks and benefits across the life cycle of their production, use, and disposal. This work presents a critical review of the literature and scientific perspective developed by a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional team of authors from academia, governmental, and nonprofit organizations. The review evaluates currently available information on the ecological and human health profile of QACs and identifies multiple areas of potential concern. Adverse ecological effects include acute and chronic toxicity to susceptible aquatic organisms, with concentrations of some QACs approaching levels of concern. Suspected or known adverse health outcomes include dermal and respiratory effects, developmental and reproductive toxicity, disruption of metabolic function such as lipid homeostasis, and impairment of mitochondrial function. QACs' role in antimicrobial resistance has also been demonstrated. In the US regulatory system, how a QAC is managed depends on how it is used, for example in pesticides or personal care products. This can result in the same QACs receiving different degrees of scrutiny depending on the use and the agency regulating it. Further, the US Environmental Protection Agency's current method of grouping QACs based on structure, first proposed in 1988, is insufficient to address the wide range of QAC chemistries, potential toxicities, and exposure scenarios. Consequently, exposures to common mixtures of QACs and from multiple sources remain largely unassessed. Some restrictions on the use of QACs have been implemented in the US and elsewhere, primarily focused on personal care products. Assessing the risks posed by QACs is hampered by their vast structural diversity and a lack of quantitative data on exposure and toxicity for the majority of these compounds. This review identifies important data gaps and provides research and policy recommendations for preserving the utility of QAC chemistries while also seeking to limit adverse environmental and human health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- William
A. Arnold
- University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Arlene Blum
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- University
of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jennifer Branyan
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Thomas A. Bruton
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | | | - Gino Cortopassi
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Sandipan Datta
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Jamie DeWitt
- East
Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27834, United States
| | - Anne-Cooper Doherty
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Rolf U. Halden
- Arizona
State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Homero Harari
- Icahn
School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | | | - Terry C. Hrubec
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Shoba Iyer
- California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Oakland, California 94612, United States
| | - Carol F. Kwiatkowski
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 United States
| | - Jonas LaPier
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Dingsheng Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | - Li Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | | | - Amina Salamova
- Indiana University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Ted Schettler
- Science and Environmental Health Network, Bolinas, California 94924, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Anna Soehl
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Rebecca Sutton
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, California 94804, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Guomao Zheng
- Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
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Staphylococcus aureus from Minas Artisanal Cheeses: Biocide Tolerance, Antibiotic Resistance and Enterotoxin Genes. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12031019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a common contaminant in artisanal raw-milk cheeses. Tolerance of S. aureus to biocides is a threat to disinfection in the cheese production environment, while antibiotic resistance and enterotoxin production are additional health concerns. This study aimed to evaluate the tolerance of S. aureus isolated from Minas artisanal cheeses to the biocides benzalkonium chloride, hexadecylpyridinium chloride, cetrimide, triclosan, hexachlorophene, and chlorhexidine, and the simultaneous occurrence of genes coding for antibiotic resistance (mecA, aacA-aphD, and tetK), efflux pumps [qacA/B and smr (qacC/D)], and enterotoxins (sea, seb, sec, sed, see, seg, seh, sei, and sej). Among the tested isolates, 38.2% were resistant to at least one biocide, and 73.1% were positive for one or more antibiotic resistance gene. Most of the biocide-tolerant and antibiotic-resistant isolates harbored efflux pump genes, and were positive for at least one staphylococcal enterotoxin gene. The study highlights the need for correct hygiene monitoring programs to ensure the safety of these products.
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Chen B, Han J, Dai H, Jia P. Biocide-tolerance and antibiotic-resistance in community environments and risk of direct transfers to humans: Unintended consequences of community-wide surface disinfecting during COVID-19? ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 283:117074. [PMID: 33848900 PMCID: PMC8019131 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
During the current pandemic, chemical disinfectants are ubiquitously and routinely used in community environments, especially on common touch surfaces in public settings, as a means of controlling the virus spread. An underappreciated risk in current regulatory guidelines and scholarly discussions, however, is that the persisting input of chemical disinfectants can exacerbate the growth of biocide-tolerant and antibiotic-resistant bacteria on those surfaces and allow their direct transfers to humans. For COVID-19, the most commonly used disinfecting agents are quaternary ammonium compounds, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, and ethanol, which account for two-thirds of the active ingredients in current EPA-approved disinfectant products for the novel coronavirus. Tolerance to each of these compounds, which can be either intrinsic or acquired, has been observed on various bacterial pathogens. Of those, mutations and horizontal gene transfer, upregulation of efflux pumps, membrane alteration, and biofilm formation are the common mechanisms conferring biocide tolerance in bacteria. Further, the linkage between disinfectant use and antibiotic resistance was suggested in laboratory and real-life settings. Evidence showed that substantial bacterial transfers to hands could effectuate from short contacts with surrounding surfaces and further from fingers to lips. While current literature on disinfectant-induced antimicrobial resistance predominantly focuses on municipal wastes and the natural environments, in reality the community and public settings are most severely impacted by intensive and regular chemical disinfecting during COVID-19 and, due to their proximity to humans, biocide-tolerant and antibiotic-resistant bacteria emerged in these environments may pose risks of direct transfers to humans, particularly in densely populated urban communities. Here we highlight these risk factors by reviewing the most pertinent and up-to-date evidence, and provide several feasible strategies to mitigate these risks in the scenario of a prolonging pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Chen
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, PR China; Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
| | - Jie Han
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, PR China.
| | - Han Dai
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, PR China
| | - Puqi Jia
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, PR China
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Class 1 integron-borne cassettes harboring blaCARB-2 gene in multidrug-resistant and virulent Salmonella Typhimurium ST19 strains recovered from clinical human stool samples, United States. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0240978. [PMID: 33125394 PMCID: PMC7598458 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0240978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
International lineages, such as Salmonella Typhimurium sequence type (ST) 19, are most often associated with foodborne diseases and deaths in humans. In this study, we compared the whole-genome sequences of five S. Typhimurium strains belonging to ST19 recovered from clinical human stool samples in North Carolina, United States. Overall, S. Typhimurium strains displayed multidrug-resistant profile, being resistance to critically and highly important antimicrobials including ampicillin, ticarcillin/clavulanic acid, streptomycin and sulfisoxazole, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, respectively. Interestingly, all S. Typhimurium strains carried class 1 integron (intl1) and we were able to describe two genomic regions surrounding blaCARB-2 gene, size 4,062 bp and 4,422 bp for S. Typhimurium strains (HS5344, HS5437, and HS5478) and (HS5302 and HS5368), respectively. Genomic analysis for antimicrobial resistome confirmed the presence of clinically important genes, including blaCARB-2, aac(6’)-Iaa, aadA2b, sul1, tetG, floR, and biocide resistance genes (qacEΔ1). S. Typhimurium strains harbored IncFIB plasmid containing spvRABCD operon, as well as rck and pef virulence genes, which constitute an important apparatus for spreading the virulence plasmid. In addition, we identified several virulence genes, chromosomally located, while the phylogenetic analysis revealed clonal relatedness among these strains with S. enterica isolated from human and non-human sources obtained in European and Asian countries. Our results provide new insights into this unusual class 1 integron in virulent S. Typhimurium strains that harbors a pool of genes acting as potential hotspots for horizontal gene transfer providing readily adaptation to new surrounds, as well as being crucially required for virulence in vivo. Therefore, continuous genomic surveillance is an important tool for safeguarding human health.
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Drauch V, Ibesich C, Vogl C, Hess M, Hess C. In-vitro testing of bacteriostatic and bactericidal efficacy of commercial disinfectants against Salmonella Infantis reveals substantial differences between products and bacterial strains. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 328:108660. [PMID: 32450393 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella (S.) Infantis is currently the most common serovar in broilers and boiler meat in the European Union. In the field, eradication of S. Infantis in affected poultry flocks is considered extremely difficult. Despite stringent cleaning and disinfection measures between the placement of flocks, recurrent infections are often reported. So far, the efficacy of disinfectants on S. Infantis has rarely been studied. Therefore, in the present in-vitro study the bacteriostatic and bactericidal efficacy of ten commercial disinfectants were tested against seven S. Infantis field isolates. Combinations of aldehyde and quarternary ammonium were the active compounds of five, peroxygen of three, cresol and alkylamines of one disinfectant, respectively. Investigations were performed according to standard protocols and regulations. Different concentrations of disinfectants were used to test the bacteriostatic efficacy. Different temperatures and low and high protein exposures were applied as variables to investigate the bactericidal efficacy. Following neutralization of the disinfectants an additional incubation step was introduced to investigate the revitalisation potential of S. Infantis. The bacteriostatic efficacy could be assessed for seven disinfectants. For three disinfectants a bacteriostatic effect was observed when the recommended concentration was used, whereas with four disinfectants only increased concentrations led to this effect. The bactericidal efficacy was not influenced by temperature, whereas high protein exposure decreased the efficacy of nine disinfectants. Furthermore, reactivation of S. Infantis was revealed after application of disinfectants for the majority of products. Interestingly, the strain of S. Infantis influenced the efficacy of the disinfectants. Overall, products based on aldehydes and quarternary ammonium compounds proved most efficient, followed by peroxgen, cresol and alkylamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Drauch
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Claudia Ibesich
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Claus Vogl
- Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Michael Hess
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Claudia Hess
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
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