Synthesis of graft copolymers of carboxymethyl cellulose and N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate and their study as Paclitaxel carriers

Multifunctional lanthanum oxide-doped carboxymethyl cellulose nanocomposites: A promising approach for antimicrobial and targeted anticancer applications

This study presents the synthesis and characterization of lanthanum oxide (La₂O₃)-doped carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) nanocomposites via a solution casting method, designed to offer an eco-friendly, multifunctional material with significant potential in biomedical applications. Structural analysis using FTIR, XRD, and EDX confirmed successful La₂O₃ integration, with FTIR spectra indicating a distinctive LaO stretching peak at 628.2 cm-1, XRD patterns revealing enhanced crystallinity with notable peaks at 16.6°, 27.6°, and 49.8°, and EDX showing a uniform lanthanum distribution with a 10.41 mass% concentration. These enhancements in structural stability and crystalline properties underscore the composite's functional robustness. Biological assessments revealed the composite's substantial antimicrobial efficacy, demonstrating inhibition zones up to 31 mm against pathogenic strains such as E. coli, S. aureus, E. faecalis, K. pneumoniae, and C. albicans at a 15 wt% La₂O₃ concentration-surpassing conventional antimicrobial agents. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) tests supported these findings, showing MIC values as low as 7.82 μg/mL, further validating the composite's heightened antimicrobial potency compared to pure CMC. In vitro cytotoxicity assays indicated selective anticancer effects of the La₂O₃/CMC nanocomposites, with IC₅₀ values of 327.7 μg/mL and 189.8 μg/mL against PC-3 prostate and A549 lung cancer cells, respectively. Remarkably, the composite showed minimal impact on normal lung fibroblasts (Wi-38), with an IC₅₀ value of 956.8 μg/mL, emphasizing its selectivity towards cancer cells. Collectively, these results highlight the La₂O₃/CMC composite as a biocompatible and multifunctional material suitable for both antimicrobial and targeted anticancer applications, aligning with the growing demand for safe, effective biomedical solutions.

Preparation and Characterization of Temperature-Sensitive Gel Plugging Agent

In order to use intelligent gel systems to realize deep source water control in medium and high water cut reservoirs, and also to solve the shortcomings of conventional gels, such as the high chemical dose required, large profile control radius, poor temperature resistance, shear resistance, and plugging performance, a temperature-sensitive gel based on natural cellulose was developed, and the temperature resistance, rheological performance, and plugging performance of the temperature-sensitive gel were tested and evaluated. The results show that the system can maintain a viscosity retention rate of up to 95% after high-temperature aging at 90-120 °C for 50 days. When using medium- to low-salinity calcium chloride formation water for preparation, the gelation effect is good. The rheometer oscillation frequency scanning test shows that the system gel is a strong elastic body dominated by elasticity. The core displacement experiment shows that the highest sealing rate of the system is 97%, and the breakthrough pressure can reach 2.5 MPa at this time. The microstructure of the gel system was tested by infrared, and it was found that the gel system had strong hydrogen bonding and the gel had good stability. The research results contribute to improving the recovery rate of high water cut oil reservoirs.

Eco-friendly property modulation of biobased gels of carboxymethyl cellulose-integrated poly(tertiary amine)s for the removal of azo-food dyes

Anionic polysaccharide-based gels enable the design of biobased materials with biochemical properties, non-toxic and natural origin. A new set of cationic gels was prepared from carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)-doped tertiary amino functional cationic monomers 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate and N-(3-(dimethylamino)propyl) methacrylamide via the formation of semi-interpenetrated network (semi-IPN) at different polymerization temperatures, Tprep. A detailed understanding of the temperature-dependent synthesis and physicochemical response is required for the design of interpenetrating networks with CMC as an adsorbent that provides effective sources for the removal of azo-food dyes such as tartrazine and carmoisine from aqueous solutions. The variation of elasticity and swelling properties with respect to polymerization temperature was investigated. CMC-integration and polymerization temperature played a decisive role in the compressive elasticity. Incorporation of CMC into copolymer matrix led to a significant increase in elasticity of semi-IPNs, while mechanically weaker gels were obtained with increasing Tprep. Addition of CMC increased the swelling modulus of semi-IPNs formed at -18 °C by 2.6-fold. While the transparency changed depending on Tprep and microstructure, addition of CMC decreased the swelling rate of gels at all polymerization temperatures. The compressive modulus decreased with the swelling process in accordance with the Rubber elasticity theory. Semi-IPN gels showed stable swelling against pH-change in aqueous solutions and exhibited excellent pH-sensitivity significantly in low pH. A 4 to 12 fold decrease in maximum volume was observed by varying the pH between 2.1 and 9.8. The correlation between polymerization temperature and removal of azo-food dyes; tartrazine and carmoisine from contaminated wastewater with CMC-based gels was studied. Dynamic adsorption equilibrium was reached in 30 min, and tartrazine and carmoisine removal performances varied between 92.8 % and 98.4 %. respectively. The adsorption data for azo-dyes were evaluated by Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Dubinin-Radushkevich, Redlich-Patterson, Sips, and Tooth isotherm models, but were best described by Langmuir and Redlich-Patterson models as they gave the highest correlation. Pseudo-first order, pseudo-second order, Elovich, Avrami kinetic and intra-particle diffusion models were investigated and dye adsorption was represented by pseudo-second-order model. After the adsorption process, semi-IPNs can easily be regenerated and effectively reused over five cycles. The study provided new insights towards the facile and sustainable synthesis of eco-friendly multifunctional CMC-based gels carrying tertiary amino groups for effective removal of azo-based food colorants.

Cationic nanocarriers: A potential approach for targeting negatively charged cancer cell

Cancer, a widespread and lethal disease, necessitates precise therapeutic interventions to mitigate its devastating impact. While conventional chemotherapy remains a cornerstone of cancer treatment, its lack of specificity towards cancer cells results in collateral damage to healthy tissues, leading to adverse effects. Thus, the quest for targeted strategies has emerged as a critical focus in cancer research. This review explores the development of innovative targeting methods utilizing novel drug delivery systems tailored to recognize and effectively engage cancer cells. Cancer cells exhibit morphological and metabolic traits, including irregular morphology, unchecked proliferation, metabolic shifts, genetic instability, and a higher negative charge, which serve as effective targeting cues. Central to these strategies is the exploitation of the unique negative charge characteristic of cancer cells, attributed to alterations in phospholipid composition and the Warburg effect. Leveraging this distinct feature, researchers have devised cationic carrier systems capable of enhancing the specificity of therapeutic agents towards cancer cells. The review delineates the underlying causes of the negative charge in cancer cells and elucidates various targeting approaches employing cationic compounds for drug delivery systems. Furthermore, it delves into the methods employed for the preparation of these systems. Beyond cancer treatment, the review also underscores the multifaceted applications of cationic carrier systems, encompassing protein and peptide delivery, imaging, photodynamic therapy, gene delivery, and antimicrobial applications. This comprehensive exploration underscores the potential of cationic carrier systems as versatile tools in the fight against cancer and beyond.

Complexation of Bromelain, Ficin, and Papain with the Graft Copolymer of Carboxymethyl Cellulose Sodium Salt and N-Vinylimidazole Enhances Enzyme Proteolytic Activity

This study investigates the features of interactions between cysteine proteases (bromelain, ficin, and papain) and a graft copolymer of carboxymethyl cellulose sodium salt with N-vinylimidazole. The objective is to understand the influence of this interactions on the proteolytic activity and stability of the enzymes. The enzymes were immobilized through complexation with the carrier. The interaction mechanism was examined using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and flexible molecular docking simulations. The findings reveal that the enzymes interact with the functional groups of the carrier via amino acid residues, resulting in the formation of secondary structure elements and enzyme's active sites. These interactions induce modulation of active site of the enzymes, leading to an enhancement in their proteolytic activity. Furthermore, the immobilized enzymes demonstrate superior stability compared to their native counterparts. Notably, during a 21-day incubation period, no protein release from the conjugates was observed. These results suggest that the complexation of the enzymes with the graft copolymer has the potential to improve their performance as biocatalysts, with applications in various fields such as biomedicine, pharmaceutics, and biotechnology.

Carboxymethyl Cellulose-Based Polymers as Promising Matrices for Ficin Immobilization

The present work is devoted to research on the interaction between carboxymethyl cellulose sodium salt and its derivatives (graft copolymer of carboxymethyl cellulose sodium salt and N,N-dimethyl aminoethyl methacrylate) with cysteine protease (ficin). The interaction was studied by FTIR and by flexible molecular docking, which have shown the conjugates' formation with both matrices. The proteolytic activity assay performed with azocasein demonstrated that the specific activities of all immobilized ficin samples are higher in comparison with those of the native enzyme. This is due to the modulation of the conformation of ficin globule and of the enzyme active site by weak physical interactions involving catalytically valuable amino acids. The results obtained can extend the practical use of ficin in biomedicine and biotechnology.

Swelling and Viscoelastic Properties of Cellulose-Based Hydrogels Prepared by Free Radical Polymerization of Dimethylaminoethyl Methacrylate in Cellulose Solution

The grafting of a stimuli-responsive polymer (poly(dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate)) onto cellulose was achieved by performing free radical polymerization of a vinyl/divinyl monomer in cellulose solution. The grafting and crosslinking efficiency in the material have been increased by subsequent irradiation of the samples with ionizing radiation (doses of 10, 30, or 100 kGy). The relative amount of poly(dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) in the prepared hydrogels was determined by infrared spectroscopy. The swelling behavior of the hydrogels was studied thoroughly, including microgelation extent, equilibrium swelling, and reswelling degree, as well as the dependence on the gelation procedure. The dynamic viscoelastic behavior of prepared hydrogels was also studied. The tan δ values indicate a solid-like behavior while the obtained hydrogels have a complex modulus in the range of 14-39 kPa, which is suitable for hydrogels used in biomedical applications. In addition, the incorporation of Ag particles and the adsorption of Fe3+ ions were tested to evaluate the additional functionalities of the prepared hydrogels. It was found that the introduction of PDMAEMA to the hydrogels enhanced their ability to synthesize Ag particles and absorb Fe3+ ions, providing a platform for the potential preparation of hydrogels for the treatment of wounds.

Nanocellulose-based drug carriers: Functional design, controllable synthesis, and therapeutic applications

With rising living standards and environmental awareness, materials-oriented chemical engineering has increasingly transitioned from traditional rough models to more resource-saving and eco-friendly models, providing an avenue for bio-based materials in the drug carrier field. Because of its excellent physical and chemical properties, including high specific surface area, abundant accessible hydroxyl groups, biocompatibility, and degradability, nanocellulose (NC) is an emerging bio-based material that has been widely exploited as biomedical materials. The modification techniques of NC, as well as advancements in the design and applications of drug carriers, were primarily discussed in this study. First, the NC modification methods are described; second, the applications of NC and its derivatives as drug carriers are summarized, focusing on NC-based carrier models, types of loaded therapeutic agents, and controlled release stimulators; and finally, the current challenges of NC in the drug carrier field and the directions of future research are also discussed.

Polymer-Based Hybrid Nanoarchitectures for Cancer Therapy Applications

Globally, cancer is affecting societies and is becoming an important cause of death. Chemotherapy can be highly effective, but it is associated with certain problems, such as undesired targeting and multidrug resistance. The other advanced therapies, such as gene therapy and peptide therapy, do not prove to be effective without a proper delivery medium. Polymer-based hybrid nanoarchitectures have enormous potential in drug delivery. The polymers used in these nanohybrids (NHs) provide them with their distinct properties and also enable the controlled release of the drugs. This review features the recent use of polymers in the preparation of different nanohybrids for cancer therapy published since 2015 in some reputed journals. The polymeric nanohybrids provide an advantage in drug delivery with the controlled and targeted delivery of a payload and the irradiation of cancer by chemotherapeutical and photodynamic therapy.

Chitosan Graft Copolymers with N-Vinylimidazole as Promising Matrices for Immobilization of Bromelain, Ficin, and Papain

This work aims to synthesize graft copolymers of chitosan and N-vinylimidazole (VI) with different compositions to be used as matrices for the immobilization of cysteine proteases—bromelain, ficin, and papain. The copolymers are synthesized by free radical solution copolymerization with a potassium persulfate-sodium metabisulfite blend initiator. The copolymers have a relatively high frequency of grafting and yields. All the synthesized graft copolymers are water-soluble, and their solutions are characterized by DLS and laser Doppler microelectrophoresis. The copolymers are self-assembled in aqueous solutions, and they have a cationic nature and pH-sensitivity correlating to the VI content. The FTIR data demonstrate that synthesized graft copolymers conjugate cysteine proteases. The synthesized copolymer adsorbs more enzyme macromolecules compared to non-modified chitosan with the same molecular weight. The proteolytic activity of the immobilized enzymes is increased up to 100% compared to native ones. The immobilized ficin retains up to 97% of the initial activity after a one-day incubation, the immobilized bromelain retains 69% of activity after a 3-day incubation, and the immobilized papain retains 57% of the initial activity after a 7-day incubation. Therefore, the synthesized copolymers can be used as matrices for the immobilization of bromelain, ficin, and papain.

Spherical Cellulose Micro and Nanoparticles: A Review of Recent Developments and Applications

Cellulose, the most abundant natural polymer, is a versatile polysaccharide that is being exploited to manufacture innovative blends, composites, and hybrid materials in the form of membranes, films, coatings, hydrogels, and foams, as well as particles at the micro and nano scales. The application fields of cellulose micro and nanoparticles run the gamut from medicine, biology, and environment to electronics and energy. In fact, the number of studies dealing with sphere-shaped micro and nanoparticles based exclusively on cellulose (or its derivatives) or cellulose in combination with other molecules and macromolecules has been steadily increasing in the last five years. Hence, there is a clear need for an up-to-date narrative that gathers the latest advances on this research topic. So, the aim of this review is to portray some of the most recent and relevant developments on the use of cellulose to produce spherical micro- and nano-sized particles. An attempt was made to illustrate the present state of affairs in terms of the go-to strategies (e.g., emulsification processes, nanoprecipitation, microfluidics, and other assembly approaches) for the generation of sphere-shaped particles of cellulose and derivatives thereof. A concise description of the application fields of these cellulose-based spherical micro and nanoparticles is also presented.

Recent Developments of Carboxymethyl Cellulose

Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is one of the most promising cellulose derivatives. Due to its characteristic surface properties, mechanical strength, tunable hydrophilicity, viscous properties, availability and abundance of raw materials, low-cost synthesis process, and likewise many contrasting aspects, it is now widely used in various advanced application fields, for example, food, paper, textile, and pharmaceutical industries, biomedical engineering, wastewater treatment, energy production, and storage energy production, and storage and so on. Many research articles have been reported on CMC, depending on their sources and application fields. Thus, a comprehensive and well-organized review is in great demand that can provide an up-to-date and in-depth review on CMC. Herein, this review aims to provide compact information of the synthesis to the advanced applications of this material in various fields. Finally, this article covers the insights of future CMC research that could guide researchers working in this prominent field.