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Zhang W, Kaser-Eichberger A, Fan W, Platzl C, Schrödl F, Heindl LM. The structure and function of the human choroid. Ann Anat 2024; 254:152239. [PMID: 38432349 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2024.152239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
In this manuscript, the structure of the human choroid is reviewed with emphasis of the macro- and microscopic anatomy including Bruch's membrane, choriocapillaris, Sattler's and Haller's layer, and the suprachoroid. We here discuss the development of the choroid, as well as the question of choroidal lymphatics, and further the neuronal control of this tissue, as well as the pathologic angiogenesis. Wherever possible, functional aspects of the various structures are included and reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weina Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology -Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Wanlin Fan
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Christian Platzl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology -Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Falk Schrödl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology -Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Ludwig M Heindl
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
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Kaser-Eichberger A, Platzl C, Wolfmeier H, Trost A, Horn A, Barnerssoi M, Strohmaier C, Schroedl F. Urocortin-positive nerve fibres and cells are present in the human choroid. Br J Ophthalmol 2023; 107:1575-1582. [PMID: 35217514 DOI: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2021-320697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Choroidal vascular regulation is mediated by the autonomic nervous system in order to gain proper blood flow control. While the mechanisms behind this control are unknown, neuroregulatory peptides are involved in this process. To better understand choroidal function, we investigate the presence of urocortin-1 (UCN), a neuroregulatory peptide with vascular effects, in the human choroid and its possible intrinsic and extrinsic origin. METHODS Human choroid and eye-related cranial ganglia (superior cervical ganglion- SCG, ciliary ganglion-CIL, pterygopalatine ganglion-PPG, trigeminal ganglion-TRI) were prepared for immunohistochemistry against UCN, protein-gene product 9.5 (PGP9.5), substance P (SP), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). For documentation, confocal laser scanning microscopy was used. RESULTS In choroidal stroma, UCN-immunoreactivity was present in nerve fibres, small cells and intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICN). Some UCN+ nerve fibres colocalised for VAChT, while others were VAChT. A similar situation was found with SP: some UCN+ nerve fibres showed colocalisation for SP, while others lacked SP. Colocalisation for UCN and TH was not observed. In eye-related cranial ganglia, only few cells in the SCG, PPG and TRI were UCN+, while many cells of the CIL displayed weak UCN immunoreactivity. CONCLUSION UCN is part of the choroidal innervation. UCN+/VAChT+ fibres could derive from the few cells of the PPG or cells of the CIL, if these indeed supply the choroid. UCN+/SP+ fibres might originate from ICN, or the few UCN+ cells detected in the TRI. Further studies are necessary to establish UCN function in the choroid and its implication for choroidal autonomic control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Christian Platzl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Heidi Wolfmeier
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Andrea Trost
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Anja Horn
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University München, München, Germany
| | - Miriam Barnerssoi
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University München, München, Germany
| | - Clemens Strohmaier
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Kepler University Hospital, Linz, Oberösterreich, Austria
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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Platzl C, Kaser-Eichberger A, Wolfmeier H, Trost A, Schroedl F. Human intrinsic choroidal neurons do not alter the expression of intrinsic markers in response to pressure. Br J Ophthalmol 2023; 107:1209-1215. [PMID: 34933896 DOI: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2021-320211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The choroid is densely innervated by all parts of the autonomic nervous system and further harbours a network of local nerve cells, the intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICN). Their function in ocular control is currently unknown. While morphological data assume a role in intraocular pressure regulation, we here test if increased pressure on isolated choroids may activate ICN. METHODS Donor tissue was transferred into a pressurisable tissue culture chamber, and nasal and temporal choroid halves incubated for 1 or 4 hours, with pressures set to 15 or 50 mm Hg, followed by qRT-PCR expression analysis of the ICN-specific markers VIP, UCN, NOS1, UCH-L1. POL2-normalised data in the different pressure settings, incubation times and localisations were statistically analysed. RESULTS The presence of the ICN-specific markers VIP, UCN, NOS1, UCH-L1 was confirmed using immunohistochemistry, and mRNA of all markers was detected in all experimental conditions. Marker analysis revealed no significant changes of mRNA expression levels between 15 and 50 mm Hg in the different incubation times. When comparing all samples over all experimental conditions, a significant increase of VIP and NOS1 mRNA was detected in temporal versus nasal choroids. CONCLUSION In this functional analysis of human ICN in vitro, higher amounts of VIP and NOS1 mRNA were detected in the temporal choroid, that is, the choroidal site with ICN accumulation. Further, our data indicate that elevated pressure is apparently not able to trigger ICN responses via the investigated markers. Alternative markers and stimuli need to be investigated in upcoming studies in order to unravel ICN function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Platzl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Heidi Wolfmeier
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Andrea Trost
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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Rucker F, Taylor C, Kaser-Eichberger A, Schroedl F. Parasympathetic and sympathetic control of emmetropization in chick. Exp Eye Res 2023; 232:109508. [PMID: 37230289 PMCID: PMC10452042 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2023.109508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Emmetropization can be altered by temporal visual stimulation and the spectral properties of the visual environment. The goal of the current experiment is to test the hypothesis that there is an interaction between these properties and autonomic innervation. For that purpose, selective lesions of the autonomic nervous system were performed in chickens followed by temporal stimulation. Parasympathetic lesioning involved transection of both the ciliary ganglion and the pterygopalatine ganglion (PPG_CGX; n = 38), while sympathetic lesioning involved transection of the superior cervical ganglion (SCGX; n = 49). After one week of recovery, chicks were then exposed to temporally modulated light (3 days, 2 Hz, Mean: 680 lux) that was either achromatic (with blue [RGB], or without blue [RG]), or chromatic (with blue [B/Y] or without blue [R/G]). Control birds with lesions, or unlesioned, were exposed to white [RGB] or yellow [RG] light. Ocular biometry and refraction (Lenstar and a Hartinger refractometer) was measured before and after exposure to light stimulation. Measurements were statistically analyzed for the effects of a lack of autonomic input and the type of temporal stimulation. In PPG_CGX lesioned eyes, there was no effect of the lesions one-week post-surgery. However, after exposure to achromatic modulation, the lens thickened (with blue) and the choroid thickened (without blue) but there was no effect on axial growth. Chromatic modulation thinned the choroid with R/G. In the SGX lesioned eye, there was no effect of the lesion 1-week post-surgery. However, after exposure to achromatic modulation (without blue), the lens thickened and there was a reduction in vitreous chamber depth and axial length. Chromatic modulation caused a small increase in vitreous chamber depth with R/G. Both autonomic lesion and visual stimulation were necessary to affect the growth of ocular components. The bidirectional responses observed in axial growth and in choroidal changes suggest that autonomic innervation combined with spectral cues from longitudinal chromatic aberration may provide a mechanism for homeostatic control of emmetropization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances Rucker
- New England College of Optometry, 424 Beacon St., Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Chris Taylor
- New England College of Optometry, 424 Beacon St., Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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Ostrin LA, Harb E, Nickla DL, Read SA, Alonso-Caneiro D, Schroedl F, Kaser-Eichberger A, Zhou X, Wildsoet CF. IMI-The Dynamic Choroid: New Insights, Challenges, and Potential Significance for Human Myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2023; 64:4. [PMID: 37126359 PMCID: PMC10153586 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.64.6.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The choroid is the richly vascular layer of the eye located between the sclera and Bruch's membrane. Early studies in animals, as well as more recent studies in humans, have demonstrated that the choroid is a dynamic, multifunctional structure, with its thickness directly and indirectly subject to modulation by a variety of physiologic and visual stimuli. In this review, the anatomy and function of the choroid are summarized and links between the choroid, eye growth regulation, and myopia, as demonstrated in animal models, discussed. Methods for quantifying choroidal thickness in the human eye and associated challenges are described, the literature examining choroidal changes in response to various visual stimuli and refractive error-related differences are summarized, and the potential implications of the latter for myopia are considered. This review also allowed for the reexamination of the hypothesis that short-term changes in choroidal thickness induced by pharmacologic, optical, or environmental stimuli are predictive of future long-term changes in axial elongation, and the speculation that short-term choroidal thickening can be used as a biomarker of treatment efficacy for myopia control therapies, with the general conclusion that current evidence is not sufficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Ostrin
- University of Houston College of Optometry, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Elise Harb
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States
| | - Debora L Nickla
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Disease, New England College of Optometry, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Scott A Read
- Contact Lens and Visual Optics Laboratory, Centre for Vision and Eye Research, School of Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David Alonso-Caneiro
- Contact Lens and Visual Optics Laboratory, Centre for Vision and Eye Research, School of Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology-Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology-Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Xiangtian Zhou
- Eye Hospital and School of Optometry and Ophthalmology, National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Christine F Wildsoet
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States
- Centre for Vision and Eye Research, School of Optometry and Vision Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Privalov E, Zenkel M, Schloetzer-Schrehardt U, Kuerten S, Bergua A, Hohberger B. Pressure-Dependent Elevation of Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Level in Chicken Choroid. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:biology12040495. [PMID: 37106696 PMCID: PMC10136289 DOI: 10.3390/biology12040495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Autonomic control is important in maintaining ocular integrity. As recent data suggested that intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICN), an intrinsic choroidal autonomic control, may regulate choroidal thickening via release of the vasodilative vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), it was the aim of the study to investigate the level of choroidal VIP (VIPchor) in the presence of an increased atmospheric pressure in a chicken model. METHODS Chicken choroidal whole mounts were exposed to ambient pressure (n = 20) and 40 mm Hg (n = 20) in a PC-controlled, open chamber system for 24 and 72 h, respectively. The VIP concentration was analyzed by ELISA, and the total protein concentration was measured by the BCA assay. Statistical analysis was done using an unpaired two-tailed t-test. RESULTS The pressurization systems enabled choroidal whole mount pressurization (40 mm Hg) with humidifying, pressure, temperature, and gas exchange. Overall, the VIPchor level concentration was significantly increased at 40 mmHg compared to the ambient pressure (30.09 ± 7.18 pg vs. 20.69 ± 3.24 pg; p < 0.0001). Subgroup analysis yielded a significantly increased VIPchor level at 40 mmHg compared to the ambient pressure after 24 h (28.42 ± 6.03 pg vs. 20.76 ± 4.06 pg; p = 0.005) and 72 h (31.77 ± 7.82 pg vs. 20.61 ± 2.12 pg; p = 0.002), respectively. The VIPchor elevation at 40 mm Hg ranged between 1.37- (24 h) and 1.54-fold (72 h) compared to the ambient pressure. No difference was observed between the VIPchor level at 24 h and 72 h (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The increase of the total choroidal VIP level, representing the intracellular VIP content, in the presence of an increased ambient pressure argues for a retention of VIP within the neurons, decreasing both vasodilatation and, consequently, choroid thickness. This finding might be a passive or even active function of ICN in the regulation of choroidal thickness, ocular integrity and IOP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeny Privalov
- Department of Ophthalmology, Universität of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Friedrich-Alexander-University-Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Matthias Zenkel
- Department of Ophthalmology, Universität of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Friedrich-Alexander-University-Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Ursula Schloetzer-Schrehardt
- Department of Ophthalmology, Universität of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Friedrich-Alexander-University-Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Stefanie Kuerten
- Institute of Neuroanatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Antonio Bergua
- Department of Ophthalmology, Universität of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Friedrich-Alexander-University-Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Bettina Hohberger
- Department of Ophthalmology, Universität of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Friedrich-Alexander-University-Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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Lei J, Fan Y, Wu Y, Yuan S, Ye Y, Huang K, Chen Q, Yang B, Xie P. Microvascular Alterations of Peripapillary Choriocapillaris in Young Adult High Myopia Detected by Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography. J Pers Med 2023; 13:jpm13020289. [PMID: 36836523 PMCID: PMC9965566 DOI: 10.3390/jpm13020289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: The microstructural alterations of the peripapillary choriocapillaris in high myopes remain elusive. Here, we used optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) to explore factors involved in these alterations. (2) Methods: This cross-sectional control study included 205 young adults' eyes (95 with high myopia and 110 with mild to moderate myopia). The choroidal vascular network was imaged using OCTA, and the images underwent manual adjustments to determine the peripapillary atrophy (PPA)-β zone and microvascular dropout (MvD). The area of MvD and the PPA-β zone, spherical equivalent (SE), and axial length (AL) were collected and compared across groups. (3) Results: The MvD was identified in 195 eyes (95.1%). Highly myopic eyes exhibited a significantly greater area for the PPA-β zone (1.221 ± 0.073 vs. 0.562 ± 0.383 mm2, p = 0.001) and MvD (0.248 ± 0.191 vs. 0.089 ± 0.082 mm2, p < 0.001) compared with mildly to moderately myopic eyes, and a lower average density in the choriocapillaris. Linear regression analysis showed that the MvD area correlated with age, SE, AL, and the PPA-β area (all p < 0.05). (4) Conclusions: This study found that MvDs represent choroidal microvascular alterations in young-adult high myopes, which were correlated with age, SE, AL, and the PPA-β zone. In this disorder, OCTA is important for characterizing the underlying pathophysiological adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Lei
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Yuanyuan Fan
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Yan Wu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Songtao Yuan
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Yurong Ye
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Kun Huang
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
| | - Qiang Chen
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
| | - Bin Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Yangzhong People’s Hospital, Yangzhong 212299, China
- Correspondence: (B.Y.); (P.X.); Tel.: +86-13812356086 (B.Y.); +86-13901585755 (P.X.)
| | - Ping Xie
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
- Correspondence: (B.Y.); (P.X.); Tel.: +86-13812356086 (B.Y.); +86-13901585755 (P.X.)
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Wolfmeier H, Heindl S, Platzl C, Kaser-Eichberger A, Nematian-Ardestani E, Strohmaier C, Pruszak J, Schroedl F. Targeted surface marker screening on neuronal structures in the human choroid. Exp Eye Res 2023; 227:109368. [PMID: 36586549 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
While choroidal neuronal control is known to be essential for retinal and ocular health, its mechanisms are not understood. Especially, the local choroidal innervation mediated by intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICN) remains enigmatic. Neuronal functionality depends on the synaptic neurotransmitters and neuroregulatory peptides involved as well as from membrane components presented on the cell surface. Since the neuronal surface molecular expression patterns in the choroid are currently unknown, we sought to determine the presence of various cluster-of-differentiation (CD) antigens in choroidal neuronal structures with a particular focus on ICN. Human choroids were prepared for immunohistochemistry and the pan-neuronal marker PGP9.5 was combined with CD15, CD24, CD29, CD34, CD46, CD49b, CD49e, CD56, CD58, CD59, CD71, CD81, CD90, CD146, CD147, CD151, CD165, CD171, CD184, CD200, CD271 and fluorescence- and confocal laser scanning-microscopy was used for documentation. The following antigens were found to be co-localized in PGP.9.5+ nerve fibers and ICN perikarya: CD29, CD34, CD56, CD81, CD90, CD146, CD147, CD151, CD171, CD200 and CD271, while all other CD markers where not detectable. Whereas CD24- and CD59- immunoreactivity was clearly absent in ICN perikarya, some neural processes of the choroidal stroma displayed CD24 and CD59 immunopositivity. While a multitude of the aforementioned CD-markers were indeed detected in nervous structures of the choroid, the CD24+ and CD59+ nerve fibers most likely have extrinsic origin from cranial ganglia since ICN cell bodies were found to lack both markers. These findings illustrate how the detailed analysis of CD molecules described here opens novel avenues for future functional studies on choroidal innervation and its control.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Wolfmeier
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - S Heindl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - C Platzl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - A Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - E Nematian-Ardestani
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - C Strohmaier
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
| | - J Pruszak
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - F Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
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Platzl C, Kaser-Eichberger A, Benavente-Perez A, Schroedl F. The choroid-sclera interface: An ultrastructural study. Heliyon 2022; 8:e09408. [PMID: 35586330 PMCID: PMC9108890 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Emmetropization is an active and visually guided process that involves the retina, choroid and sclera, and results in compensatory changes in eye growth. This guided growth is the result of visual cues and possibly mechanical interactions being translated into growth signals via molecular events from the retina into the choroid and sclera, through the choroidal scleral transition zone. If mechanical interactions were a part of the choroid-sclera signaling transduction cascade, specific morphological arrangements should be detectable in this region at the ultrastructural level. The goal of this study was to investigate the ultrastructural features of the choroidal scleral transition zone by comparing avian, non-human primate and human eyes, with the goal to confirm whether specific mechanical structures are present. Choroidal and scleral tissue from chicken, marmoset, and human eyes were imaged using transmission electron microscopy to document the choroid-sclera transition zone. In chicken eyes, fibroblast lamellae bordered the scleral matrix and formed thin end elongated processes that were undercut by scleral collagen fibrils. These processes back-looped into the scleral matrix, and displayed small club-like membrane protrusions. Differences in these arrangements in mature vs young chickens were not detected. The club-like membrane protrusions identified in chickens were rare in marmoset eyes, which instead exhibited two types of collagen fibrils discriminated by size, and were absent in the human eyes investigated. In marmoset and human eyes, elastic components were detected in the transition zone that were absent in chickens. In summary, cellular/membrane specializations indicating a mechanical interaction at the choroid-sclera transition zone were not detected in chicken, non-human primate or human eyes. If mechanotransduction is necessary for scleral growth, matrix integrity or development, alternative structural arrangements might be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Platzl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology -Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - A. Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology -Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | - F. Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology -Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Corresponding author.
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Rucker F, Taylor C, Kaser-Eichberger A, Schroedl F. Parasympathetic innervation of emmetropization. Exp Eye Res 2022; 217:108964. [PMID: 35120871 PMCID: PMC8957574 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.108964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Emmetropization is affected by the temporal parameters of visual stimulation and the spectral composition of light, as well as by autonomic innervation. The goal of the current experiments is to test the hypothesis that different types of visual stimulation interact with ocular innervation in the process of emmetropization. For that, selective lesions of the autonomic nervous system were performed in chickens: involving transection of parasympathetic input to the eye from either the ciliary ganglion, innervating accommodation and pupil responses (CGX; n = 32), or pterygopalatine ganglion, innervating choroidal blood vessels and cornea (PPGX; n = 26). After 1 week of recovery, chicks were exposed to sinusoidally modulated light (3 days, 2 Hz, 680 lux) that was either achromatic (black to white [RGB], or black to yellow [RG]), or chromatic (blue to yellow [B/Y] or red to green [R/G]). Exposure to light stimulation was followed by ocular biometry (Lenstar and a Hartinger refractometer). Surgical conditions revealed a small reduction in anterior chamber depth with CGX but no other significant changes in ocular biometry/refraction under standard light conditions. With RGB achromatic stimulation, CGX eyes produced an effect on ocular components, with a further reduction in anterior chamber depth and an increase in vitreous chamber depth, while RG stimulation showed no effect. No effect was detected in PPGX under both achromatic protocols. With chromatic stimulation, CGX with R/G modulation increased eye length, while PPGX with B/Y modulation decreased eye length. We conclude that the two different types of parasympathetic innervations have antagonistic effects on eye growth and the anterior eye when challenged with the appropriate stimulus, with possible implications for the role of choroidal blood flow in emmetropization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances Rucker
- New England College of Optometry, 424 Beacon St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Chris Taylor
- New England College of Optometry, 424 Beacon St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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11
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Qin YJ, Xiao K, Zhong Z, Zhao Y, Zhang YL, Sun XF. Markers of the sympathetic, parasympathetic and sensory nervous system are altered in the human diabetic choroid. Peptides 2021; 146:170661. [PMID: 34571056 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2021.170661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We sought to evaluate alterations in markers of the autonomic nervous system in human diabetic choroid. METHODS Eighteen eyeballs from subjects with diabetes and 22 eyeballs from subjects without diabetes were evaluated in this study. Synaptophysin, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DβH), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), vesicular monoamine transporter II (VMAT-2), vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) levels were detected by western blot analysis and immunofluorescence was performed in some cases. Furthermore, differences in adrenergic (α1- and β2-subtypes) and cholinergic (M1 and M3) receptor levels between diabetic subjects and controls were noted. RESULTS Decreased synaptophysin levels were found in diabetic choroids by western blot analysis and a reduction of synaptophysin-immunoreactive nerves was also found by immunofluorescence. Furthermore, a decrease of the levels of the key enzyme (TH) and transporter (VMAT2) of norepinephrine was evident both by western blot analysis and immunofluorescence. Additionally, increased NPY, VAChT, nNOS, and CGRP levels were observed in diabetic choroids. The levels of adrenergic (β2 subtype) and acetylcholine (M1 subtype) receptors decreased in diabetic choroids, as shown by western blotting and although the differences in α1 and M3 were not significant, there was a downward trend. CONCLUSIONS In the diabetic choroid, the levels of neurotransmitters, enzymes, and receptors associated with choroidal blood flow regulation are altered. These changes may affect the regulation of choroidal blood flow and may be associated with impaired retinal function and retinal pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Jun Qin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ke Xiao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zheng Zhong
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yin Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yao-Li Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xu-Fang Sun
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
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Heindl LM, Platzl C, Wolfmeier H, Herwig-Carl MC, Kaser-Eichberger A, Strohmaier C, Schroedl F. Choroidal melanocytes: subpopulations of different origin? Ann Anat 2021; 238:151775. [PMID: 34082079 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2021.151775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The human choroid derives from the mesectoderm, except the melanocytes originating from the neuroectoderm. To date, it is unclear whether all choroidal melanocytes share the same origin or might have different origins. The purpose of this study was to screen immunohistochemically for mesenchymal elements in the adult healthy human choroid, in the malignant melanoma of the choroid, as well as in the developing human fetal choroid. METHODS Human choroids were obtained from cornea donors and prepared as flat whole mounts for paraffin- and cryoembedding. Globes enucleated for choroidal melanoma and eyes from human fetuses between 11 and 20 weeks of gestation were also embedded in paraffin. Sections were processed for immunohistochemistry of the mesenchymal marker vimentin, the melanocyte marker Melan-A, and the macrophage marker CD68, followed by light-, fluorescence-, and confocal laser scanning-microscopy. RESULTS The normal choroid contained 499 ± 139 vimentin, 384 ± 78 Melan-A, and 129 ± 57 CD68 immunoreactive cells/mm2. The vimentin immunopositive cell density was significantly higher than the density of Melan-A and CD68 immunopositive cells (p < 0.001, respectively). By confocal microscopy, 24 ± 8% of all choroidal melanocytes displayed vimentin immunoreactivity. In choroidal melanomas, numerous melanoma cells of the epithelioid and spindle cell type revealed immunopositivity for both vimentin and Melan-A. The intratumoral density of vimentin immunoreactive cells was 1758 ± 106 cells/mm2, significantly higher than the density of Melan-A and CD68 immunopositive cells (p < 0.001, respectively). Comparing to healthy choroidal tissue, the choroidal melanomas revealed significantly higher densities of vimentin, Melan-A, and CD68 immunoreactive cells (p < 0.001, respectively). In the developing human fetal choroid, numerous vimentin and Melan-A immunopositive cells were detected not before the 16th week of gestation, with some of them showing colocalization of vimentin and Melan-A. CONCLUSIONS The adult healthy human choroid is endowed with a significant number of vimentin immunopositive mesenchymal structures, including a subpopulation of vimentin immunoreactive choroidal melanocytes. These vimentin immunopositive melanocytic cells are also present in choroidal melanomas as well as in the developing human fetal choroid. Therefore, different embryologic origins can be considered for choroidal melanocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludwig M Heindl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Christian Platzl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Heidi Wolfmeier
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Martina C Herwig-Carl
- Department of Ophthalmology, Division of Ophthalmic Pathology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Clemens Strohmaier
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria.
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
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Abalem M, Nazareth Santos Veloso H, Garcia R, Chen X, Carricondo P, Cabral Zacharias L, Preti R. The Effect of Glycemia on Choroidal Thickness in Different Stages of Diabetic Retinopathy. Ophthalmic Res 2020; 63:474-482. [DOI: 10.1159/000506381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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14
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Troilo D, Smith EL, Nickla DL, Ashby R, Tkatchenko AV, Ostrin LA, Gawne TJ, Pardue MT, Summers JA, Kee CS, Schroedl F, Wahl S, Jones L. IMI - Report on Experimental Models of Emmetropization and Myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 60:M31-M88. [PMID: 30817827 PMCID: PMC6738517 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.18-25967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The results of many studies in a variety of species have significantly advanced our understanding of the role of visual experience and the mechanisms of postnatal eye growth, and the development of myopia. This paper surveys and reviews the major contributions that experimental studies using animal models have made to our thinking about emmetropization and development of myopia. These studies established important concepts informing our knowledge of the visual regulation of eye growth and refractive development and have transformed treatment strategies for myopia. Several major findings have come from studies of experimental animal models. These include the eye's ability to detect the sign of retinal defocus and undergo compensatory growth, the local retinal control of eye growth, regulatory changes in choroidal thickness, and the identification of components in the biochemistry of eye growth leading to the characterization of signal cascades regulating eye growth and refractive state. Several of these findings provided the proofs of concepts that form the scientific basis of new and effective clinical treatments for controlling myopia progression in humans. Experimental animal models continue to provide new insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of eye growth control, including the identification of potential new targets for drug development and future treatments needed to stem the increasing prevalence of myopia and the vision-threatening conditions associated with this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Troilo
- SUNY College of Optometry, State University of New York, New York, New York, United States
| | - Earl L. Smith
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Debora L. Nickla
- Biomedical Sciences and Disease, New England College of Optometry, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Regan Ashby
- Health Research Institute, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
| | - Andrei V. Tkatchenko
- Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States
| | - Lisa A. Ostrin
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Timothy J. Gawne
- School of Optometry, University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Machelle T. Pardue
- Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Tech College of Engineering, Atlanta, Georgia, United States31
| | - Jody A. Summers
- College of Medicine, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Chea-su Kee
- School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Anatomy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Siegfried Wahl
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Zeiss Vision Science Laboratory, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Lyndon Jones
- CORE, School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
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Nickla DL, Schroedl F. Effects of autonomic denervations on the rhythms in axial length and choroidal thickness in chicks. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2019; 205:139-149. [PMID: 30604271 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-018-01310-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In chicks, axial length and choroidal thickness undergo circadian oscillations. The choroid is innervated by both branches of the autonomic nervous system, but their contribution(s) to these rhythms is unknown. We used two combination lesions to test this. For parasympathectomy, nerve VII was sectioned presynaptic to the pterygopalatine ganglia, and the ciliary post-ganglionics were cut (double lesion; n = 8). Triple lesions excised the sympathetic superior cervical ganglion as well (n = 8). Sham surgery was done in controls (n = 7). 8-14 days later, axial dimensions were measured with ultrasonography at 4-h intervals over 24 h. Rhythm parameters were assessed using a "best fit" function, and growth rates measured. Both types of lesions resulted in ultradian (> 1 cycle/24 h) rhythms in choroidal thickness and axial length, and increased vitreous chamber growth (Exp-fellow: double: 69 µm; triple: 104 µm; p < 0.05). For double lesions, the frequency was 1.5 cycles/day for both rhythms; for triples the choroidal rhythm was 1.5 cycles/day, and the axial was 3 cycles/day. For double lesions, the amplitudes of both rhythms were larger than those of sham surgery controls (axial: 107 vs 54 µm; choroid: 124 vs 29 µm, p < 0.05). These findings provide evidence for the involvement of abnormal ocular rhythms in the growth stimulation underlying myopia development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debora L Nickla
- The New England College of Optometry, 424 Beacon St., Boston, MA, USA.
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16
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Reiner A, Fitzgerald MEC, Del Mar N, Li C. Neural control of choroidal blood flow. Prog Retin Eye Res 2018; 64:96-130. [PMID: 29229444 PMCID: PMC5971129 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The choroid is richly innervated by parasympathetic, sympathetic and trigeminal sensory nerve fibers that regulate choroidal blood flow in birds and mammals, and presumably other vertebrate classes as well. The parasympathetic innervation has been shown to vasodilate and increase choroidal blood flow, the sympathetic input has been shown to vasoconstrict and decrease choroidal blood flow, and the sensory input has been shown to both convey pain and thermal information centrally and act locally to vasodilate and increase choroidal blood flow. As the choroid lies behind the retina and cannot respond readily to retinal metabolic signals, its innervation is important for adjustments in flow required by either retinal activity, by fluctuations in the systemic blood pressure driving choroidal perfusion, and possibly by retinal temperature. The former two appear to be mediated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, via central circuits responsive to retinal activity and systemic blood pressure, but adjustments for ocular perfusion pressure also appear to be influenced by local autoregulatory myogenic mechanisms. Adaptive choroidal responses to temperature may be mediated by trigeminal sensory fibers. Impairments in the neural control of choroidal blood flow occur with aging, and various ocular or systemic diseases such as glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), hypertension, and diabetes, and may contribute to retinal pathology and dysfunction in these conditions, or in the case of AMD be a precondition. The present manuscript reviews findings in birds and mammals that contribute to the above-summarized understanding of the roles of the autonomic and sensory innervation of the choroid in controlling choroidal blood flow, and in the importance of such regulation for maintaining retinal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Reiner
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States.
| | - Malinda E C Fitzgerald
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States; Department of Biology, Christian Brothers University, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Nobel Del Mar
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States
| | - Chunyan Li
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Ave. Memphis, TN 38163, United States
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Hohberger B, Jessberger C, Hermann F, Zenkel M, Kaser-Eichberger A, Bergua A, Jünemann AG, Schrödl F, Neuhuber W. VIP changes during daytime in chicken intrinsic choroidal neurons. Exp Eye Res 2018; 170:8-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2018.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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18
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Kaser-Eichberger A, Trost A, Strohmaier C, Bogner B, Runge C, Bruckner D, Hohberger B, Jünemann A, Kofler B, Reitsamer HA, Schrödl F. Distribution of the neuro-regulatory peptide galanin in the human eye. Neuropeptides 2017; 64:85-93. [PMID: 27914762 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2016.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Galanin (GAL) is a neuro-regulatory peptide involved in many physiological and pathophysiological processes. While data of GAL origin/distribution in the human eye are rather fragmentary and since recently the presence of GAL-receptors in the normal human eye has been reported, we here systematically search for sources of ocular GAL in the human eye. Human eyes (n=14) were prepared for single- and double-immunohistochemistry of GAL and neurofilaments (NF). Cross- and flat-mount sections were achieved; confocal laser-scanning microscopy was used for documentation. In the anterior eye, GAL-immunoreactivity (GAL-IR) was detected in basal layers of corneal epithelium, endothelium, and in nerve fibers and keratinocytes of the corneal stroma. In the conjunctiva, GAL-IR was seen throughout all epithelial cell layers. In the iris, sphincter and dilator muscle and endothelium of iris vessels displayed GAL-IR. It was also detected in stromal cells containing melanin granules, while these were absent in others. In the ciliary body, ciliary muscle and pigmented as well as non-pigmented ciliary epithelium displayed GAL-IR. In the retina, GAL-IR was detected in cells associated with the ganglion cell layer, and in endothelial cells of retinal blood vessels. In the choroid, nerve fibers of the choroidal stroma as well as fibers forming boutons and surrounding choroidal blood vessels displayed GAL-IR. Further, the majority of intrinsic choroidal neurons were GAL-positive, as revealed by co-localization-experiments with NF, while a minority displayed NF- or GAL-IR only. GAL-IR was also detected in choroidal melanocytes, as identified by the presence of intracellular melanin-granules, as well as in cells lacking melanin-granules, most likely representing macrophages. GAL-IR was detected in numerous cells and tissues throughout the anterior and posterior eye and might therefore be an important regulatory peptide for many aspects of ocular control. Upcoming studies in diseased tissue will help to clarify the role of GAL in ocular homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Andrea Trost
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Clemens Strohmaier
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Bogner
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Christian Runge
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Daniela Bruckner
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Bettina Hohberger
- Dept. of Ophthalmology, University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Anselm Jünemann
- Dept. of Ophthalmology, University Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Barbara Kofler
- Laura-Bassi Centre of Expertise, THERAPEP, Research Program of Receptor Biochemistry and Tumor Metabolism, Dept. of Pediatrics, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Herbert A Reitsamer
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria; Director of the Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Falk Schrödl
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria; Dept. of Anatomy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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Abalem MF, Machado MC, Santos HNVD, Garcia R, Helal J, Carricondo PC, Pimentel SLG, Monteiro MLR, Qian CX, Bronstein MD, Fragoso MCVB. Choroidal and Retinal Abnormalities by Optical Coherence Tomography in Endogenous Cushing's Syndrome. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2016; 7:154. [PMID: 28018289 PMCID: PMC5145875 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2016.00154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Cortisol has been suggested as a risk factor for choroidal thickening, which may lead to retinal changes. OBJECTIVE To compare choroidal thickness measurements using optical coherence tomography (OCT) in patients with endogenous active Cushing's syndrome (CS) and to evaluate the occurrence of retinal abnormalities in the same group of patients. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING Outpatient clinic. PATIENTS Eleven female patients with CS in hypercortisolism state as determined by the presence of at least two abnormal measurements from urinary cortisol 24 h, no suppression of cortisol with low dose dexamethasone suppression test, and nocturnal salivary cortisol levels and 12 healthy controls. METHODS Choroidal and retinal morphology was assessed using OCT. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Choroidal thickness measurements and the presence of retinal changes. RESULTS The mean subfoveal choroidal thickness was 372.96 ± 73.14 µm in the patients with CS and 255.63 ± 50.70 µm in the control group (p < 0.001). One patient (9.09%) presented with central serous chorioretinopathy and one patient (9.09%) with pachychoroid pigment epitheliopathy. CONCLUSION Choroidal thickness is increased in the eyes of patients with active CS compared to healthy and matched control. Also, 18.18% of patients presented with macular changes, possibly secondary to choroidal thickening. While further studies are necessary to confirm our findings, excess corticosteroid levels seem to have a significant effect on the choroid and might be associated with secondary retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Fernanda Abalem
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Marcio Carlos Machado
- Department of Endocrinology, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Endocrinology Service, AC Camargo Cancer Center, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Rafael Garcia
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - John Helal
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Pedro Carlos Carricondo
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sérgio Luis Gianotti Pimentel
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mario Luiz Ribeiro Monteiro
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cynthia X. Qian
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kellogg Eye Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Schrödl F, Kaser-Eichberger A, Trost A, Strohmaier C, Bogner B, Runge C, Bruckner D, Motloch K, Holub B, Kofler B, Reitsamer HA. Distribution of galanin receptors in the human eye. Exp Eye Res 2015; 138:42-51. [PMID: 26122049 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2015.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The neuropeptide galanin (GAL) is widely distributed within intrinsic and extrinsic sources supplying the eye. It is involved in regulation of the vascular tone, thus important for ocular homeostasis. Since the presence/distribution of its receptors is unknown, we here screen for the presence of the various GAL receptors in the human eye. Meeting the Helsinki-Declaration, human eyes (n = 6; 45-83 years of age, of both sex, post mortem time 10-19 h) were obtained from the cornea bank and prepared for immunohistochemistry against GAL receptors 1-3 (GALR1-GALR3). Over-expressing cell assays served as positive controls and confocal laser-scanning microscopy was used for documentation. Cell assays reliably detected immunoreactivity for GALR1-3 and cross-reactions between antibodies used were not observed. In the cornea, GALR1-3 were detected in basal layers of the epithelium, stroma, endothelium, as well as in adjacent conjunctiva. In the iris, GALR1-3 were detected in iris sphincter and dilator, while iris vessels displayed immunoreactivity for GALR1 and GALR3. In the ciliary body, GALR1 was exclusively found in the non-pigmented epithelium while GALR3 was detected in the ciliary muscle and vessels. In the retina, GALR1 was present in fibers of the IPL, OPL, NFL, many cells of the INL and few cells of the ONL. GALR2 and GALR3 were present in few neurons of the INL, while GALR2 was also found surrounding retinal vessels. RPE displayed weak immunoreactivity for GALR2 but intense immunoreactivity for GALR3. In the choroid, GALR1-3 were detectable in intrinsic choroidal neurons and nerve fibers of the choroidal stroma, and all three receptors were detected surrounding choroidal blood vessels, while the choriocapillaris was immunoreactive for GALR3 only. This is the first report of the various GALRs in the human eye. While the presence of GALRs in cornea and conjunctiva might be relevant for wound healing or inflammatory processes, the detection in iris vessels (GALR1, 2) and choroidal vessels (GALR1-3) highlights the role of GAL in vessel dynamics. Presence of GALR1 in ciliary body epithelium and GALR3 in ciliary vessels indicates involvement in aqueous humor production, whereas retinal GALR distribution might contribute to signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Falk Schrödl
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria; Department of Anatomy, Paracelsus Medical University, Strubergasse 21, 5020 Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Andrea Trost
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Clemens Strohmaier
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Bogner
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Christian Runge
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Daniela Bruckner
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Karolina Motloch
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Holub
- Laura-Bassi Centre of Expertise, THERAPEP, Department of Pediatrics, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Kofler
- Laura-Bassi Centre of Expertise, THERAPEP, Department of Pediatrics, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Herbert A Reitsamer
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
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Schrödl F, Kaser-Eichberger A, Trost A, Strohmaier C, Bogner B, Runge C, Bruckner D, Krefft K, Kofler B, Brandtner H, Reitsamer HA. Alarin in cranial autonomic ganglia of human and rat. Exp Eye Res 2014; 131:63-8. [PMID: 25497346 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2014.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Extrinsic and intrinsic sources of the autonomic nervous system contribute to choroidal innervation, thus being responsible for the control of choroidal blood flow, aqueous humor production or intraocular pressure. Neuropeptides are involved in this autonomic control, and amongst those, alarin has been recently introduced. While alarin is present in intrinsic choroidal neurons, it is not clear if these are the only source of neuronal alarin in the choroid. Therefore, we here screened for the presence of alarin in human cranial autonomic ganglia, and also in rat, a species lacking intrinsic choroidal innervation. Cranial autonomic ganglia (i.e., ciliary, CIL; pterygopalatine, PPG; superior cervical, SCG; trigeminal ganglion, TRI) of human and rat were prepared for immunohistochemistry against murine and human alarin, respectively. Additionally, double staining experiments for alarin and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), tyrosine hydroxilase (TH), substance P (SP) were performed in human and rat ganglia for unequivocal identification of ganglia. For documentation, confocal laser scanning microscopy was used, while quantitative RT-PCR was applied to confirm immunohistochemical data and to detect alarin mRNA expression. In humans, alarin-like immunoreactivity (alarin-LI) was detected in intrinsic neurons and nerve fibers of the choroidal stroma, but was lacking in CIL, PPG, SCG and TRI. In rat, alarin-LI was detected in only a minority of cranial autonomic ganglia (CIL: 3.5%; PPG: 0.4%; SCG: 1.9%; TRI: 1%). qRT-PCR confirmed the low expression level of alarin mRNA in rat ganglia. Since alarin-LI was absent in human cranial autonomic ganglia, and only present in few neurons of rat cranial autonomic ganglia, we consider it of low impact in extrinsic ocular innervation in those species. Nevertheless, it seems important for intrinsic choroidal innervation in humans, where it could serve as intrinsic choroidal marker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Falk Schrödl
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria; Department of Anatomy, Paracelsus Medical University, Strubergasase 21, 5020, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Andrea Trost
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Clemens Strohmaier
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Bogner
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Christian Runge
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Daniela Bruckner
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Karolina Krefft
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Barbara Kofler
- Laura-Bassi Centre of Expertise, THERAPEP, Department of Pediatrics, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Herwig Brandtner
- Department of Legal Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Ignaz-Harrer-Straße 79, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Herbert A Reitsamer
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Paracelsus Medical University, Muellner Hauptstrasse 48, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
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Mathis U, Ziemssen F, Schaeffel F. Effects of a human VEGF antibody (Bevacizumab) on deprivation myopia and choroidal thickness in the chicken. Exp Eye Res 2014; 127:161-9. [PMID: 25094067 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2014.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 07/02/2014] [Accepted: 07/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a dimeric glycoprotein which is responsible for neovascularization and fenestrations of the choriocapillaris. In neovascular maculopathies secondary to age-related degeneration (nAMD) or pathologic myopia (PM-CNV), its inhibition by humanized antibodies is currently the most successful therapy. The choroid has an important role in maintaining retinal health and its thickness declines with age and with myopia. Since choroidal thickness depends on its perfusion rate, one would expect that anti-VEGF agents can also change choroidal thickness. We have tested the hypothesis in the chicken model, using a humanized antibody, Bevacizumab, and also studied the distribution of VEGF-A in the chicken fundal layers by immunohistochemical techniques. Even though it was raised against human VEGF, Bevacizumab had several long lasting effects in the chicken eye (1) after a single unilateral intravitreal injection of 0.5 mg, it partially suppressed the development of deprivation myopia, similarly in both eyes, (2) it completely suppressed choroidal thickening that normally occurs when eyes recover from induced myopia over a time period of about 10 days, (3) it had little effect on the choroidal thickness in eyes that had normal visual experience, (4) VEGF-A was absent in sclera, but highly expressed in the walls of choroidal blood vessels and presumed nerve fiber bundles, as well as in retinal photoreceptors and cells of the inner and outer nuclear layer. One day after the injection of Bevacizumab, the immunoreactivity against VEGF-A had largely disappeared. In conclusion, Bevacizumab is similary effective in human and chicken tissue, has similar time constants (few days), has almost symmetrical effects on myopia in both eyes even after monocular application, and fully suppresses choroidal thickening that normally occurs during recovery from deprivation myopia. The mechanisms by which Bevacizumab acts on the choroidal thickness are perhaps most interesting, both to better understand the role of the choroid in myopia development but also to clarify its potential side effects during nAMD and PM-CNV treatment in the clinics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ute Mathis
- Section of Neurobiology of the Eye, Ophthalmic Research Institute, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7/1, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Focke Ziemssen
- University Eye Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, Schleichstrasse 12-16, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Frank Schaeffel
- Section of Neurobiology of the Eye, Ophthalmic Research Institute, University of Tuebingen, Calwerstrasse 7/1, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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Abstract
Myopia is the result of a mismatch between the optical power and the length of the eye, with the latter being too long. Driving the research in this field is the need to develop myopia treatments that can limit axial elongation. When axial elongation is excessive, as in high myopia, there is an increased risk of visual impairment and blindness due to ensuing pathologies such as retinal detachments. This article covers both clinical studies involving myopic children, and studies involving animal models for myopia. Atropine, a nonselective muscarinic antagonist, has been studied most extensively in both contexts. Because it remains the only drug used in a clinical setting, it is a major focus of the first part of this article, which also covers the many shortcomings of topical ophthalmic atropine. The second part of this article focuses on in vitro and animal-based drug studies, which encompass a range of drug targets including the retina, retinal pigment epithelium and sclera. While the latter studies have contributed to a better understanding of how eye growth is regulated, no new antimyopia drug treatments have reached the clinical setting. Less conservative approaches in research, and in particular, the exploration of new bioengineering approaches for drug delivery, are needed to advance this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prema Ganesan
- School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-2020, USA
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Itoh K, Takaki Y, Ando K, Soh T, Ichinomiya Y, Kusaba H. Colocalization of nitric oxide synthase, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivities in postganglionic neurons of the quail superior cervical ganglion. J Vet Med Sci 2013; 75:439-43. [PMID: 23171690 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.12-0400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The colocalization of immunoreactivity to nitric oxide synthase (NOS), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) was investigated in the quail. In this bird, a substantial amount of NOS-immunoreactive (IR) cells were consistently found in the SCG without colchicine treatment or nerve ligation. The finding worthy of pointing out was that three-fourths of these NOS-IR cells were positive for TH. VIP-IR cells appeared with markedly low frequency than NOS-IR cells. They were generally small in size and often located in the ganglion peripheral. There were no VIP-IR cells positive for TH or negative for NOS: VIP immunoreactivity always appears in NOS-IR cells negative for TH. Thus, the results of the present study clearly showed the existence of two distinct subpopulations of postganglionic NOS-IR neurons (one is catecholaminergic and negative for VIP, and the other is non-catecholaminergic and positive for VIP). This suggests that nitric oxide (NO) and possibly VIP act as postganglionic neurotransmitters or neuromodulators in the quail SCG. The predominant appearance of the former category of NOS-IR cells must be considered in relation to some specific NO-induced controlling mechanisms of SCG neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuhito Itoh
- Biological Laboratory, Department of Applied Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu Sangyo University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan
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25
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The choroid as a sclera growth regulator. Exp Eye Res 2013; 114:120-7. [PMID: 23528534 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2013.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Emmetropization is a vision dependent mechanism that attempts to minimize refractive error through coordinated growth of the cornea, lens and sclera such that the axial length matches the focal length of the eye. It is generally accepted that this visually guided eye growth is controlled via a cascade of locally generated chemical events that are initiated in the retina and ultimately cause changes in scleral extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling which lead to changes in eye size and refraction. Of much interest, therefore, are the molecular mechanisms that underpin emmetropization and visually guided ocular growth. The choroid, a highly vascularized layer located between the retina and the sclera is uniquely situated to relay retina-derived signals to the sclera to effect changes in ECM synthesis and ocular size. Studies initiated by Josh Wallman clearly demonstrate that the choroid plays an active role in emmetropization, both by modulation of its thickness to adjust the retina to the focal plane of the eye (choroidal accommodation), and well as through the release of growth factors that have the potential to regulate scleral extracellular matrix remodeling. His discoveries prompted numerous investigations on the molecular composition of the choroid and changes in gene expression associated with visually guided ocular growth. This article will review molecular and functional studies of the choroid to provide support for the hypothesis that the choroid is a source of sclera growth regulators that effect changes in ocular growth in response to visual stimuli.
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Nickla DL, Schroedl F. Parasympathetic influences on emmetropization in chicks: evidence for different mechanisms in form deprivation vs negative lens-induced myopia. Exp Eye Res 2012; 102:93-103. [PMID: 22828050 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2012.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Revised: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Ciliary ganglionectomy inhibits the development of myopia in chicks (Schmid et al., 1999), but has no effect on the compensatory responses to spectacle lenses (Schmid and Wildsoet, 1996). This study was done to assess the potential influence of the other parasympathetic input to the choroid, the pterygopalatine ganglia, on the choroidal and axial responses to retinal defocus, and to form deprivation. 4-5 week-old chicks had one of the following surgeries to one eye: (1) Section (X) of the autonomic part of cranial N VII (input to the pterygopalatine ganglia) (PPGX, n = 16), (2) PPGX plus ciliary ganglionectomy (PPG/CGX, n = 23) or (3) PPGX plus superior cervical ganglionectomy (PPG/SCGX, n = 10). Experimental eyes were fitted with positive or negative lenses, or diffusers, several days after surgery. In one group of PPG/CGX, eyes did not wear any devices (n = 8). Intact (no surgery) controls were done for all visual manipulations (lenses or diffusers). Sham surgeries were done for the PPG/CGX condition (n = 4). Ocular dimensions were measured using A-scan ultrasonography prior to the surgery, 5 days later when visual devices were placed on the eyes, at the end of lens- or diffuser-wear, and in the case of diffusers, 4 days after diffuser removal to look at "recovery". Refractive errors were measured using a Hartinger's refractometer. IOP was measured in 7 PPG/CGX birds 7d after surgery. PPGX/CGX resulted in choroidal thickening (125 μm) and a decrease in IOP over one week post-surgery. It also prevented the development of myopia in response to form deprivation (X vs intact: 0.2 D vs -4.1 D; p < 0.005), by preventing the increase in axial elongation (250 μm vs 670 μm/5d; p < 0.005). In fact, growth rate slowed below normal (X vs fellow eyes: 250 μm vs 489 μm/5d; p = 0.002). By contrast, there were no effects of this lesion on the development of myopia in response to negative lenses (X vs intact: -5.4 D vs -5.3 D). All three lesions inhibited the compensatory choroidal thickening in response to myopic defocus (ANOVA, p = 0.0008), but had no effect on the thinning response to hyperopic defocus. These results argue for different underlying mechanisms for the growth responses to form deprivation vs negative lens wear. They also imply that choroidal thickening and thinning are not opposing elements of a single mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debora L Nickla
- Department of Biosciences, The New England College of Optometry, Boston, MA 02115, United States.
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27
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Flitcroft DI. The complex interactions of retinal, optical and environmental factors in myopia aetiology. Prog Retin Eye Res 2012; 31:622-60. [PMID: 22772022 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2012.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 456] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2011] [Revised: 06/10/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Myopia is the commonest ocular abnormality but as a research topic remains at the margins of mainstream ophthalmology. The concept that most myopes fall into the category of 'physiological myopia' undoubtedly contributes to this position. Yet detailed analysis of epidemiological data linking myopia with a range of ocular pathologies from glaucoma to retinal detachment demonstrates statistically significant disease association in the 0 to -6 D range of 'physiological myopia'. The calculated risks from myopia are comparable to those between hypertension, smoking and cardiovascular disease. In the case of myopic maculopathy and retinal detachment the risks are an order of magnitude greater. This finding highlights the potential benefits of interventions that can limit or prevent myopia progression. Our understanding of the regulatory processes that guide an eye to emmetropia and, conversely how the failure of such mechanisms can lead to refractive errors, is certainly incomplete but has grown enormously in the last few decades. Animal studies, observational clinical studies and more recently randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that the retinal image can influence the eye's growth. To date human intervention trials in myopia progression using optical means have had limited success but have been designed on the basis of simple hypotheses regarding the amount of defocus at the fovea. Recent animal studies, backed by observational clinical studies, have revealed that the mechanisms of optically guided eye growth are influenced by the retinal image across a wide area of the retina and not solely the fovea. Such results necessitate a fundamental shift in how refractive errors are defined. In the context of understanding eye growth a single sphero-cylindrical definition of foveal refraction is insufficient. Instead refractive error must be considered across the curved surface of the retina. This carries the consequence that local retinal image defocus can only be determined once the 3D structure of the viewed scene, off axis performance of the eye and eye shape has been accurately defined. This, in turn, introduces an under-appreciated level of complexity and interaction between the environment, ocular optics and eye shape that needs to be considered when planning and interpreting the results of clinical trials on myopia prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- D I Flitcroft
- Children's University Hospital, Temple Street, Dublin, Ireland.
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28
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Hafezi W, Lorentzen EU, Eing BR, Müller M, King NJC, Klupp B, Mettenleiter TC, Kühn JE. Entry of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) into the distal axons of trigeminal neurons favors the onset of nonproductive, silent infection. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002679. [PMID: 22589716 PMCID: PMC3349744 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Following productive, lytic infection in epithelia, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) establishes a lifelong latent infection in sensory neurons that is interrupted by episodes of reactivation. In order to better understand what triggers this lytic/latent decision in neurons, we set up an organotypic model based on chicken embryonic trigeminal ganglia explants (TGEs) in a double chamber system. Adding HSV-1 to the ganglion compartment (GC) resulted in a productive infection in the explants. By contrast, selective application of the virus to distal axons led to a largely nonproductive infection that was characterized by the poor expression of lytic genes and the presence of high levels of the 2.0-kb major latency-associated transcript (LAT) RNA. Treatment of the explants with the immediate-early (IE) gene transcriptional inducer hexamethylene bisacetamide, and simultaneous co-infection of the GC with HSV-1, herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) or pseudorabies virus (PrV) helper virus significantly enhanced the ability of HSV-1 to productively infect sensory neurons upon axonal entry. Helper-virus-induced transactivation of HSV-1 IE gene expression in axonally-infected TGEs in the absence of de novo protein synthesis was dependent on the presence of functional tegument protein VP16 in HSV-1 helper virus particles. After the establishment of a LAT-positive silent infection in TGEs, HSV-1 was refractory to transactivation by superinfection of the GC with HSV-1 but not with HSV-2 and PrV helper virus. In conclusion, the site of entry appears to be a critical determinant in the lytic/latent decision in sensory neurons. HSV-1 entry into distal axons results in an insufficient transactivation of IE gene expression and favors the establishment of a nonproductive, silent infection in trigeminal neurons. Upon primary infection of the oronasal mucosa, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) rapidly reaches the ganglia of the peripheral nervous system via axonal transport and establishes lifelong latency in surviving neurons. Central to the establishment of latency is the ability of HSV-1 to reliably switch from productive, lytic spread in epithelia to nonproductive, latent infection in sensory neurons. It is not fully understood what specifically disposes incoming particles of a highly cytopathogenic, fast-replicating alphaherpesvirus to nonproductive, latent infection in sensory neurons. The present study shows that selective entry of HSV-1 into the distal axons of trigeminal neurons strongly favors the establishment of a nonproductive, latent infection, whereas nonselective infection of neurons still enables HSV-1 to induce lytic gene expression. Our data support a model of latency establishment in which the site of entry is an important determinant of the lytic/latent decision in the infected neuron. Productive infection of the neuron ensues if particles enter the soma of the neuron directly. In contrast, previous retrograde axonal transport of incoming viral particles creates a distinct scenario that abrogates VP16-dependent transactivation of immediate-early gene expression and precludes the expression of lytic genes to an extent sufficient to prevent the initiation of massive productive infection of trigeminal neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wali Hafezi
- University Hospital Münster, Institute of Medical Microbiology - Clinical Virology, Münster, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research (IZKF), Münster, Germany
| | - Eva U. Lorentzen
- University Hospital Münster, Institute of Medical Microbiology - Clinical Virology, Münster, Germany
| | - Bodo R. Eing
- University Hospital Münster, Institute of Medical Microbiology - Clinical Virology, Münster, Germany
| | - Marcus Müller
- University Hospital Bonn, Department of Neurology, Bonn, Germany
| | - Nicholas J. C. King
- University of Sydney, Sydney Medical School, Department of Pathology, Bosch Institute for Medical Research, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Barbara Klupp
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Molecular Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas C. Mettenleiter
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Institute of Molecular Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Joachim E. Kühn
- University Hospital Münster, Institute of Medical Microbiology - Clinical Virology, Münster, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center of Clinical Research (IZKF), Münster, Germany
- * E-mail:
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29
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Hübner S, Efthymiadis A. Histochemistry and cell biology: the annual review 2010. Histochem Cell Biol 2011; 135:111-40. [PMID: 21279376 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-011-0781-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/12/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes recent advances in histochemistry and cell biology which complement and extend our knowledge regarding various aspects of protein functions, cell and tissue biology, employing appropriate in vivo model systems in conjunction with established and novel approaches. In this context several non-expected results and discoveries were obtained which paved the way of research into new directions. Once the reader embarks on reading this review, it quickly becomes quite obvious that the studies contribute not only to a better understanding of fundamental biological processes but also provide use-oriented aspects that can be derived therefrom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Hübner
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Würzburg, Koellikerstrasse 6, 97070 Würzburg, Germany.
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30
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Neuhuber W, Schrödl F. Autonomic control of the eye and the iris. Auton Neurosci 2010; 165:67-79. [PMID: 21071284 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2010.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2010] [Revised: 08/08/2010] [Accepted: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The vertebrate eye receives innervation from ciliary and pterygopalatine parasympathetic and cervical sympathetic ganglia as well as sensory trigeminal axons. The sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways represent the classical "core" of neural regulation of ocular homeostasis. Sensory trigeminal neurons are also involved in autonomic regulation by both providing the afferent limb of various reflexes and exerting their peptide-mediated local effector function. This arrangement is remarkably conserved throughout vertebrate classes although significant modifications are observed in anamniotes, in particular their irises. In higher primates and birds, intrinsic choroidal neurons emerged as a significant additional innervation component. They most likely mediate local vascular regulation and other local homeostatic tasks in foveate eyes. This review across the vertebrate classes outfolds the complex neuronal regulatory underpinnings across vertebrates that ensure proper visual function.
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