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van der Scheer JW, Goosey-Tolfrey VL, Valentino SE, Davis GM, Ho CH. Functional electrical stimulation cycling exercise after spinal cord injury: a systematic review of health and fitness-related outcomes. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2021; 18:99. [PMID: 34118958 PMCID: PMC8196442 DOI: 10.1186/s12984-021-00882-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objective of this review was to summarize and appraise evidence on functional electrical stimulation (FES) cycling exercise after spinal cord injury (SCI), in order to inform the development of evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. METHODS PubMed, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, and CINAHL were searched up to April 2021 to identify FES cycling exercise intervention studies including adults with SCI. In order to capture the widest array of evidence available, any outcome measure employed in such studies was considered eligible. Two independent reviewers conducted study eligibility screening, data extraction, and quality appraisal using Cochranes' Risk of Bias or Downs and Black tools. Each study was designated as a Level 1, 2, 3 or 4 study, dependent on study design and quality appraisal scores. The certainty of the evidence for each outcome was assessed using GRADE ratings ('High', 'Moderate', 'Low', or 'Very low'). RESULTS Ninety-two studies met the eligibility criteria, comprising 999 adults with SCI representing all age, sex, time since injury, lesion level and lesion completeness strata. For muscle health (e.g., muscle mass, fiber type composition), significant improvements were found in 3 out of 4 Level 1-2 studies, and 27 out of 32 Level 3-4 studies (GRADE rating: 'High'). Although lacking Level 1-2 studies, significant improvements were also found in nearly all of 35 Level 3-4 studies on power output and aerobic fitness (e.g., peak power and oxygen uptake during an FES cycling test) (GRADE ratings: 'Low'). CONCLUSION Current evidence indicates that FES cycling exercise improves lower-body muscle health of adults with SCI, and may increase power output and aerobic fitness. The evidence summarized and appraised in this review can inform the development of the first international, evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for the use of FES cycling exercise in clinical and community settings of adults with SCI. Registration review protocol: CRD42018108940 (PROSPERO).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan W van der Scheer
- Peter Harrison Centre for Disability Sport, School for Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Epinal Way, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK
- The Healthcare Improvement Studies (THIS) Institute, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Clifford Allbutt Building, Cambridge, CB2 OAH, UK
| | - Victoria L Goosey-Tolfrey
- Peter Harrison Centre for Disability Sport, School for Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Epinal Way, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK
| | - Sydney E Valentino
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Room IWC EG115, 1280 Main St. W., Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Glen M Davis
- Discipline of Exercise and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Sydney School of Health Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Chester H Ho
- Division of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada.
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Fonseca LOD, Bó APL, Guimarães JA, Gutierrez ME, Fachin-Martins E. Cadence Tracking and Disturbance Rejection in Functional Electrical Stimulation Cycling for Paraplegic Subjects: A Case Study. Artif Organs 2017; 41:E185-E195. [PMID: 29148135 DOI: 10.1111/aor.13055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Functional electrical stimulation cycling has been proposed as an assistive technology with numerous health and fitness benefits for people with spinal cord injury, such as improvement in cardiovascular function, increase in muscular mass, and reduction of bone mass loss. However, some limitations, for example, lack of optimal control strategies that would delay fatigue, may still prevent this technology from achieving its full potential. In this work, we performed experiments on a person with complete spinal cord injury using a stationary tadpole trike when both cadence tracking and disturbance rejection were evaluated. In addition, two sets of experiments were conducted 6 months apart and considering activation of different muscles. The results showed that reference tracking is achieved above the cadence of 25 rpm with mean absolute errors between 1.9 and 10% when only quadriceps are activated. The disturbance test revealed that interferences may drop the cadence but do not interrupt a continuous movement if the cadence does not drop below 25 rpm, again when only quadriceps are activated. When other muscle groups were added, strong spasticity caused larger errors on reference tracking, but not when a disturbance was applied. In addition, spasticity caused the last experiments to result in less smooth cycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas O da Fonseca
- LARA - Laboratório de Automação e Robótica and Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia de Sistemas e de Automação, Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Antônio P L Bó
- LARA - Laboratório de Automação e Robótica and Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia de Sistemas e de Automação, Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Juliana A Guimarães
- NTAAI - Núcleo de Tecnologia Assistiva, Acessibilidade e Inovação and Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências e Tecnologias em Saúde, Faculdade de Ceilândia, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Miguel E Gutierrez
- LARA - Laboratório de Automação e Robótica and Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia de Sistemas e de Automação, Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Emerson Fachin-Martins
- NTAAI - Núcleo de Tecnologia Assistiva, Acessibilidade e Inovação and Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências e Tecnologias em Saúde, Faculdade de Ceilândia, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
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Lee SY, Kang SY, Im SH, Kim BR, Kim SM, Yoon HM, Han EY. The effects of assisted ergometer training with a functional electrical stimulation on exercise capacity and functional ability in subacute stroke patients. Ann Rehabil Med 2013; 37:619-27. [PMID: 24231752 PMCID: PMC3825937 DOI: 10.5535/arm.2013.37.5.619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine if assistive ergometer training can improve the functional ability and aerobic capacity of subacute stroke patients and if functional electrical stimulation (FES) of the paretic leg during ergometer cycling has additional effects. METHODS Sixteen subacute stroke patents were randomly assigned to the FES group (n=8) or the control group (n=8). All patients underwent assistive ergometer training for 30 minutes (five times per week for 4 weeks). The electrical stimulation group received FES of the paretic lower limb muscles during assistive ergometer training. The six-minute walk test (6MWT), Berg Balance Scale (BBS), and the Korean version of Modified Barthel Index (K-MBI) were evaluated at the beginning and end of treatment. Peak oxygen consumption (Vo2peak), metabolic equivalent (MET), resting and maximal heart rate, resting and maximal blood pressure, maximal rate pressure product, submaximal rate pressure product, submaximal rate of perceived exertion, exercise duration, respiratory exchange ratio, and estimated anaerobic threshold (AT) were determined with the exercise tolerance test before and after treatment. RESULTS At 4 weeks after treatment, the FES assistive ergometer training group showed significant improvements in 6MWT (p=0.01), BBS (p=0.01), K-MBI (p=0.01), Vo2peak (p=0.02), MET (p=0.02), and estimated AT (p=0.02). The control group showed improvements in only BBS (p=0.01) and K-MBI (p=0.02). However, there was no significant difference in exercise capacity and functional ability between the two groups. CONCLUSION This study demonstrated that ergometer training for 4 weeks improved the functional ability of subacute stroke patients. In addition, aerobic capacity was improved after assisted ergometer training with a FES only.
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Affiliation(s)
- So Young Lee
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Jeju National University Hospital, Jeju National University College of Medicine, Jeju, Korea
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Decker M, Griffin L, Abraham L, Brandt L. Alternating stimulation of synergistic muscles during functional electrical stimulation cycling improves endurance in persons with spinal cord injury. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2010; 20:1163-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2010.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2009] [Revised: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 07/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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Duffell LD, Rowlerson AM, Donaldson NDN, Harridge SDR, Newham DJ. Effects of endurance and strength-directed electrical stimulation training on the performance and histological properties of paralyzed human muscle: a pilot study. Muscle Nerve 2010; 42:756-63. [PMID: 20976779 DOI: 10.1002/mus.21746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Electrical stimulation (ES) improves muscle properties after spinal cord injury (SCI), but cycling power output (PO) remains low. We investigated the effect of endurance and strength ES training on these parameters. Assessments of quadriceps strength and fatigue resistance, cycling PO, and muscle biopsies were made in four well-trained SCI subjects (three cyclists and one rower) before and after additional weight training in the cyclists and once in the rower. Weight training improved muscle strength, but cycling PO was low in all subjects. There was no effect of training type on biopsy data. Biopsies showed non-specific signs of pathology, predominance of type IIa fibers, and uniform metabolic activity. Oxidative activity was low, as were capillary:fiber ratios in the cyclists. Cycling PO is limited by factors other than muscle strength. Future ES training studies should attempt to improve muscle oxidative capacity to optimize the potential benefits of ES exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynsey D Duffell
- Division of Applied Biomedical Research, King's College London, London, UK
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Petrofsky J, Schwab E. A re-evaluation of modelling of the current flow between electrodes: consideration of blood flow and wounds. J Med Eng Technol 2009; 31:62-74. [PMID: 17365428 DOI: 10.1080/03091900600687698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Electrical stimulation has been used for exercise, healing wounds, relieving pain, and strengthening muscle. The assumption is that current will flow predictably between electrodes and, therefore, there will be predictability in the clinical response to electrical stimulation. This may not be the case. The present investigation shows that considerable channelling of current occurs when the skin is heated or when there is a wound between the electrodes. By studying current movement in nutrient agar (a homogenous medium), blood agar and layered blood and nutrient agar to simulate areas of increased blood flow, it was found that areas of high or low resistance, especially in the surface layer, caused significant current movement toward (low resistance area) or away (high resistance area) from those areas. When a resister model was used to measure dispersion characteristics of current in a three-dimensional array, it was shown that if even a single resister value was lowered by 20% in the upper layer, current sinking occurred in all three layers of the array. The results seem to imply that where the tissue is non homogeneous due to injury or inflammation, electrode design or current delivery systems need to be modified appropriately to have the intended effect of the electrical stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Petrofsky
- Department of Physical Therapy, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, 92350, California. USA.
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Hamzaid NA, Davis G. Health and Fitness Benefits of Functional Electrical Stimulation-Evoked Leg Exercise for Spinal Cord–Injured Individuals. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 2009. [DOI: 10.1310/sci1404-88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Szecsi J, Krause P, Krafczyk S, Brandt T, Straube A. Functional Output Improvement in FES Cycling by Means of Forced Smooth Pedaling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39:764-80. [PMID: 17468573 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3180334966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Investigation of the influence of forced smooth and normal (nonsmooth) pedaling on the functional output of outdoor functional neuromuscular electrical stimulation (FES)-propelled cycling of spinal cord-injured subjects. SUBJECTS Twelve subjects with complete spinal cord injury (T4-T12) and limited previous FES training. METHOD Each subject participated in two separate outdoor sessions: once while pedaling a tricycle in a fixed gear, and a second time while free pedaling the same tricycle; both times with FES. Data on distance covered until exhaustion, cadence, and pedal forces were collected. Energy balance calculations led to evaluations of jerk loss and joint-related concentric/eccentric work. RESULTS First-trial and total session distances were 68 and 103% longer, respectively, in the forced smooth cycling session than in the free cycling session (P < 0.001). Significantly more additional crank work (accompanied by increased concentric work production) was generated in nonsteady cycling phases to overcome increased jerk losses during free than during fixed-gear pedaling. During fixed-gear pedaling, timing and joint location of muscle work generation were more similar to the cycling of able-bodied subjects than during freewheel pedaling, because most work was generated by knee extensors in the power phase during the former pedaling mode. CONCLUSIONS The superiority of forced smooth cycling to free cycling, as regards functional output distance, is based on less energy expenditure (less jerk loss and muscle tension) and on more efficient production of energy (more efficient timing and joint location of work production). Some energetic mechanisms that are advantageous for fixed-gear cycling act predominantly in unsteady phases; others work continuously during all phases of cycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Szecsi
- Center for Sensorimotor Research, Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximillians University, Munich, Germany.
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Szecsi J, Fornusek C, Krause P, Straube A. Low-Frequency Rectangular Pulse Is Superior to Middle Frequency Alternating Current Stimulation in Cycling of People With Spinal Cord Injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007; 88:338-45. [PMID: 17321827 DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2006.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the efficacy of using modulated middle frequency alternating current (MFAC) muscle stimulation for functional electric stimulation-propelled cycling by people with spinal cord injury (SCI) compared with the conventional method of using standard low-frequency rectangular pulses (LFRP). DESIGN Repeated-measures. SETTING Laboratory setting. PARTICIPANTS Eleven otherwise healthy volunteer subjects with SCI (8 with American Spinal Injury Association [ASIA] grade A, 3 with ASIA grade B). INTERVENTIONS To evaluate cycling-relevant differences between LFRP and modulated MFAC stimulation, we exposed participants to isometric measurements and cycling experiments performed during both 20 Hz LFRP and 4 KHz modulated with 50 Hz MFAC. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES We recorded maximal isometric torque, maximal dynamic work during 20 minutes of ergometer cycling, and perceived discomfort for each of the 2 stimulation patterns. RESULTS Both the isometric torque (P<.02) and work generated (P<.001) during MFAC stimulation were significantly lower than during standard LFRP stimulation. Four participants reported discomfort and 1 of them also developed skin burns during MFAC stimulation. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that in SCI subjects, stimulated cycling with low frequency is generally more effective than cycling with modulated MFAC in terms of torque, work, and pain sensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Szecsi
- Center for Sensorimotor Research, Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximillians University, Munich, Germany.
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