Tactile efficiency of insect antennae with two hinge joints

A leg model based on anatomical landmarks to study 3D joint kinematics of walking in Drosophila melanogaster

Walking is the most common form of how animals move on land. The model organism Drosophila melanogaster has become increasingly popular for studying how the nervous system controls behavior in general and walking in particular. Despite recent advances in tracking and modeling leg movements of walking Drosophila in 3D, there are still gaps in knowledge about the biomechanics of leg joints due to the tiny size of fruit flies. For instance, the natural alignment of joint rotational axes was largely neglected in previous kinematic analyses. In this study, we therefore present a detailed kinematic leg model in which not only the segment lengths but also the main rotational axes of the joints were derived from anatomical landmarks, namely, the joint condyles. Our model with natural oblique joint axes is able to adapt to the 3D leg postures of straight and forward walking fruit flies with high accuracy. When we compared our model to an orthogonalized version, we observed that our model showed a smaller error as well as differences in the used range of motion (ROM), highlighting the advantages of modeling natural rotational axes alignment for the study of joint kinematics. We further found that the kinematic profiles of front, middle, and hind legs differed in the number of required degrees of freedom as well as their contributions to stepping, time courses of joint angles, and ROM. Our findings provide deeper insights into the joint kinematics of walking in Drosophila, and, additionally, will help to develop dynamical, musculoskeletal, and neuromechanical simulations.

Ultrastructure of the antennal sensilla of the praying mantis Creobroter nebulosa Zheng (Mantedea: Hymenopodidae)

The praying mantis Creobroter nebulosa Zheng (Mantedea: Hymenopodidae) is an insect that has medicinal and esthetical importance, and being a natural enemy for many insects, the species is used as a biological control agent. In this publication, we used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to study the fine morphology of antennae of males and females of this species. The antennae of both sexes are filiform and consist of three parts: scape, pedicel, and flagellum (differing in the number of segments). Based on the external morphology and the sensilla distribution, the antennal flagellum is could be divided into five regions. Seven sensilla types and eleven subtypes of sensilla were observed: grooved peg sensillum (Sgp), Bohm bristles (Bb), basiconic sensillum (Sb), trichoid sensillum (StI, StII), campaniform sensillum (Sca), chaetic sensillum (ScI, ScII, ScIII), and coeloconic sensillum (ScoI, ScoII). In Mantodea, the ScoII is observed for the first time, and it is located on the tip of the flagellum. The external structure and distribution of these sensilla are compared to those of other insects and possible functions of the antennal sensilla are discussed. The males and females of the mantis could be distinguished by the length of antennae and number of Sgp. Males have antennae about 1.5 times longer and have significantly larger number of Sgp compared to females. The sexual difference in distribution of the Sgp suggests that this type of sensilla may play a role in sex-pheromones detection in mantis.

Active Sensing in Bees Through Antennal Movements Is Independent of Odor Molecule

When sampling odors, many insects are moving their antennae in a complex but repeatable fashion. Previous studies with bees have tracked antennal movements in only two dimensions, with a low sampling rate and with relatively few odorants. A detailed characterization of the multimodal antennal movement patterns as function of olfactory stimuli is thus wanted. The aim of this study is to test for a relationship between the scanning movements and the properties of the odor molecule. We tracked several key locations on the antennae of bumblebees at high frequency and in three dimensions while stimulating the insect with puffs of 11 common odorants released in a low-speed continuous flow. Water and paraffin were used as negative controls. Movement analysis was done with the neural network Deeplabcut. Bees use a stereotypical oscillating motion of their antennae when smelling odors, similar across all bees, independently of the identity of the odors and hence their diffusivity and vapor pressure. The variability in the movement amplitude among odors is as large as between individuals. The main type of oscillation at low frequencies and large amplitude is triggered by the presence of an odor and is in line with previous work, as is the speed of movement. The second oscillation mode at higher frequencies and smaller amplitudes is constantly present. Antennae are quickly deployed when a stimulus is perceived, decorrelate their movement trajectories rapidly, and oscillate vertically with a large amplitude and laterally with a smaller one. The cone of airspace thus sampled was identified through the 3D understanding of the motion patterns. The amplitude and speed of antennal scanning movements seem to be function of the internal state of the animal, rather than determined by the odorant. Still, bees display an active olfactory sampling strategy. First, they deploy their antennae when perceiving an odor. Second, fast vertical scanning movements further increase the odorant capture rate. Finally, lateral movements might enhance the likelihood to locate the source of odor, similarly to the lateral scanning movement of insects at odor plume boundaries.

Active tactile exploration and tactually induced turning in tethered walking stick insects

Many animals use their tactile sense for active exploration and tactually guided behaviors like near-range orientation. In insects, tactile sensing is often intimately linked to locomotion, resulting in the orchestration of several concurrent active movements, including turning of the entire body, rotation of the head, and searching or sampling movements of the antennae. The present study aims at linking the sequence of tactile contact events to associated changes of all three kinds of these active movements (body, head and antennae). To do so, we chose the Indian stick insect Carausius morosus, a common organism to study sensory control of locomotion. Methodologically, we combined recordings of walking speed, heading, whole-body kinematics and antennal contact sequences during stationary, tethered walking and controlled presentation of an "artificial twig" for tactile exploration. Our results show that object presentation episodes as brief as five seconds are sufficient to allow for a systematic investigation of tactually-induced turning behavior in walking stick insects. Animals began antennating the artificial twig within 0.5 s. and altered the beating-fields of both antennae in a position-dependent manner. This change was mainly carried by a systematic shift of the head-scape joint movement and accompanied by associated changes in contact likelihood, contact location and sampling direction of the antennae. The turning tendency of the insect also depended on stimulus position, whereas the active, rhythmic head rotation remained un-affected by stimulus presentation. We conclude that the azimuth of contact location is a key parameter of active tactile exploration and tactually-induced turning in stick insects.

Proprioceptive input to a descending pathway conveying antennal postural information: Terminal organisation of antennal hair field afferents

Like several other arthropod species, stick insects use their antennae for tactile exploration of the near-range environment and for spatial localisation of touched objects. More specifically, Carausius morosus continuously moves its antennae during locomotion and reliably responds to antennal contact events with directed movements of a front leg. Here we investigate the afferent projection patterns of antennal hair fields (aHF), proprioceptors known to encode antennal posture and movement, and to be involved in antennal movement control. We show that afferents of all seven aHF of C. morosus have terminal arborisations in the dorsal lobe (DL) of the cerebral (=supraoesophageal) ganglion, and descending collaterals that terminate in a characteristic part of the gnathal (=suboesophageal) ganglion. Despite differences of functional roles among aHF, terminal arborisation patterns show no topological arrangement according to segment specificity or direction of movement. In the DL, antennal motoneuron neurites show arborizations in proximity to aHF afferent terminals. Despite the morphological similarity of single mechanoreceptors of aHF and adjacent tactile hairs on the pedicel and flagellum, we find a clear separation of proprioceptive and exteroceptive mechanosensory neuropils in the cerebral ganglion. Moreover, we also find this functional separation in the gnathal ganglion.

Both stiff and compliant: morphological and biomechanical adaptations of stick insect antennae for tactile exploration

Active tactile exploration behaviour is constrained to a large extent by the morphological and biomechanical properties of the animal's somatosensory system. In the model organism Carausius morosus, the main tactile sensory organs are long, thin, seemingly delicate, but very robust antennae. Previous studies have shown that these antennae are compliant under contact, yet stiff enough to maintain a straight shape during active exploration. Overcritical damping of the flagellum, on the other hand, allows for a rapid return to the straight shape after release of contact. Which roles do the morphological and biomechanical adaptations of the flagellum play in determining these special mechanical properties? To investigate this question, we used a combination of biomechanical experiments and numerical modelling. A set of four finite-element (FE) model variants was derived to investigate the effect of the distinct geometrical and material properties of the flagellum on its static (bending) and dynamic (damping) characteristics. The results of our numerical simulations show that the tapered shape of the flagellum had the strongest influence on its static biomechanical behaviour. The annulated structure and thickness gradient affected the deformability of the flagellum to a lesser degree. The inner endocuticle layer of the flagellum was confirmed to be essential for explaining the strongly damped return behaviour of the antenna. By highlighting the significance of two out of the four main structural features of the insect flagellum, our study provides a basis for mechanical design of biomimetic touch sensors tuned to become maximally flexible while quickly resuming a straight shape after contact.

Stable phase-shift despite quasi-rhythmic movements: a CPG-driven dynamic model of active tactile exploration in an insect

An essential component of autonomous and flexible behavior in animals is active exploration of the environment, allowing for perception-guided planning and control of actions. An important sensory system involved is active touch. Here, we introduce a general modeling framework of Central Pattern Generators (CPGs) for movement generation in active tactile exploration behavior. The CPG consists of two network levels: (i) phase-coupled Hopf oscillators for rhythm generation, and (ii) pattern formation networks for capturing the frequency and phase characteristics of individual joint oscillations. The model captured the natural, quasi-rhythmic joint kinematics as observed in coordinated antennal movements of walking stick insects. Moreover, it successfully produced tactile exploration behavior on a three-dimensional skeletal model of the insect antennal system with physically realistic parameters. The effect of proprioceptor ablations could be simulated by changing the amplitude and offset parameters of the joint oscillators, only. As in the animal, the movement of both antennal joints was coupled with a stable phase difference, despite the quasi-rhythmicity of the joint angle time courses. We found that the phase-lead of the distal scape-pedicel (SP) joint relative to the proximal head-scape (HS) joint was essential for producing the natural tactile exploration behavior and, thus, for tactile efficiency. For realistic movement patterns, the phase-lead could vary within a limited range of 10–30° only. Tests with artificial movement patterns strongly suggest that this phase sensitivity is not a matter of the frequency composition of the natural movement pattern. Based on our modeling results, we propose that a constant phase difference is coded into the CPG of the antennal motor system and that proprioceptors are acting locally to regulate the joint movement amplitude.

A direct descending pathway informing locomotor networks about tactile sensor movement

Much like visually impaired humans use a white-cane, nocturnal insects and mammals use antennae or whiskers for near-range orientation. Stick insects, for example, rely heavily on antennal tactile cues to find footholds and detect obstacles. Antennal contacts can even induce aimed reaching movements. Because tactile sensors are essentially one-dimensional, they must be moved to probe the surrounding space. Sensor movement is thus an essential cue for tactile sensing, which needs to be integrated by thoracic networks for generating appropriate adaptive leg movements. Based on single and double recordings, we describe a descending neural pathway comprising three identified ON- and OFF-type neurons that convey complementary, unambiguous, and short-latency information about antennal movement to thoracic networks in the stick insect. The neurons are sensitive to the velocity of antennal movements across the entire range covered by natural movements, regardless of movement direction and joint angle. Intriguingly, none of them originates from the brain. Instead, they descend from the gnathal ganglion and receive input from antennal mechanoreceptors in this lower region of the CNS. From there, they convey information about antennal movement to the thorax. One of the descending neurons, which is additionally sensitive to substrate vibration, feeds this information back to the brain via an ascending branch. We conclude that descending interneurons with complementary tuning characteristics, gains, input and output regions convey detailed information about antennal movement to thoracic networks. This pathway bypasses higher processing centers in the brain and thus constitutes a shortcut between tactile sensors on the head and the thorax.

Social facilitation of insect reproduction with motor-driven tactile stimuli

Tactile stimuli provide animals with important information about the environment, including physical features such as obstacles, and biologically relevant cues related to food, mates, hosts and predators. The antennae, the principal sensory organs of insects, house an array of sensory receptors for olfaction, gustation, audition, nociception, balance, stability, graviception, static electric fields, and thermo-, hygro- and mechanoreception. The antennae, being the anteriormost sensory appendages, play a prominent role in social interactions with conspecifics that involve primarily chemosensory and tactile stimuli. In the German cockroach (Blattella germanica) antennal contact during social interactions modulates brain-regulated juvenile hormone production, ultimately accelerating the reproductive rate in females. The primary sensory modality mediating this social facilitation of reproduction is antennal mechanoreception. We investigated the key elements, or stimulus features, of antennal contact that socially facilitate reproduction in B. germanica females. Using motor-driven antenna mimics, we assessed the physiological responses of females to artificial tactile stimulation. Our results indicate that tactile stimulation with artificial materials, some deviating significantly from the native antennal morphology, can facilitate female reproduction. However, none of the artificial stimuli matched the effects of social interactions with a conspecific female.

Encoding of near-range spatial information by descending interneurons in the stick insect antennal mechanosensory pathway

Much like mammals use their whiskers, insects use their antennae for tactile near-range orientation during locomotion. Stick insects rapidly transfer spatial information about antennal touch location to the front legs, allowing for aimed reach-to-grasp movements. This adaptive behavior requires a spatial coordinate transformation from “antennal contact space” to “leg posture space.” Therefore, a neural pathway must convey proprioceptive and tactile information about antennal posture and contact site to thoracic motor networks. Here we analyze proprioceptive encoding properties of descending interneurons (DINs) that convey information about antennal posture and movement to the thoracic ganglia. On the basis of response properties of 110 DINs to imposed movement of the distal antennal joint, we distinguish five functional DIN groups according to their sensitivity to three parameters: movement direction, movement velocity, and antennal joint angle. These groups are simple position-sensitive DINs, which signal the antennal joint angle; dynamic position-sensitive DINs, which signal the joint angle with strong dependence on movement; unspecific movement-sensitive DINs, which signal movement but not the velocity, position, or direction of movement; and ON- and OFF-type velocity-sensitive DINs. The activity of the latter two groups is increased/attenuated during antennal movement, with the spike rate increasing/decreasing linearly with antennal joint angle velocity. Some movement-sensitive DINs convey spikes to the thorax within 11 ms, suggesting a rapid, direct pathway from antennal mechanosensory to thoracic motor networks. We discuss how the population of DINs could provide the neural basis for the intersegmental spatial coordinate transfer between a touch sensor of the head and thoracic motor networks.

Active tactile sampling by an insect in a step-climbing paradigm

Many insects actively explore their near-range environment with their antennae. Stick insects (Carausius morosus) rhythmically move their antennae during walking and respond to antennal touch by repetitive tactile sampling of the object. Despite its relevance for spatial orientation, neither the spatial sampling patterns nor the kinematics of antennation behavior in insects are understood. Here we investigate unrestrained bilateral sampling movements during climbing of steps. The main objectives are: (1) How does the antennal contact pattern relate to particular object features? (2) How are the antennal joints coordinated during bilateral tactile sampling? We conducted motion capture experiments on freely climbing insects, using steps of different height. Tactile sampling was analyzed at the level of antennal joint angles. Moreover, we analyzed contact patterns on the surfaces of both the obstacle and the antenna itself. Before the first contact, both antennae move in a broad, mostly elliptical exploratory pattern. After touching the obstacle, the pattern switches to a narrower and faster movement, caused by higher cycle frequencies and lower cycle amplitudes in all joints. Contact events were divided into wall- and edge-contacts. Wall contacts occurred mostly with the distal third of the flagellum, which is flexible, whereas edge contacts often occurred proximally, where the flagellum is stiff. The movement of both antennae was found to be coordinated, exhibiting bilateral coupling of functionally analogous joints [e.g., left head-scape (HS) joint with right scape-pedicel (SP) joint] throughout tactile sampling. In comparison, bilateral coupling between homologous joints (e.g., both HS joints) was significantly weaker. Moreover, inter-joint coupling was significantly weaker during the contact episode than before. In summary, stick insects show contact-induced changes in frequency, amplitude and inter-joint coordination during tactile sampling of climbed obstacles.

Central drive and proprioceptive control of antennal movements in the walking stick insect

In terrestrial locomotion, active touch sensing is an important source of near-range information. Walking stick insects show active tactile exploration behaviour by continuously sampling the ambient space with their antennae. Here, we identify central and proprioceptive contributions to the control of this behaviour. First, we investigate the potential role of synaptic drive to central neural networks using pilocarpine, an agonist of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. In an in situ preparation, pilocarpine induced rhythmic antennal movements with a persisting pattern of inter-joint coordination, matching that seen in intact walking animals, albeit with lower cycle frequency. After de-cerebration, stick insects were still able to walk but no longer moved their antennae during walking. Here, pilocarpine still induced antennal movement, suggesting that synaptic drive to central neural networks involved in antennal movement generation occurred in the brain and not in the suboesophageal ganglion. During intact walking, these networks are likely to receive activation by ascending input. Second, we show persistent coupling of both antennal joints during intact walking, with the distal scape-pedicel joint (SP) always leading the proximal head-scape joint (HS). Ablation of joint proprioceptors had no effect on this overall pattern of inter-joint coordination but could affect the magnitude of the phase-lag. Third, we revise the description of antennal hair fields and show that complete ablation of all seven hair fields strongly affects antennal movements. Ablating dorsal hair fields mainly affected the working-ranges of antennal joints: Ablation of the dorso-medial pedicellar hair plate caused a ventral shift of the SP working-range. Ablation of the dorsal scapal hair plate considerably expanded the dorsal HS working-range, and, in combination with ablation of pedicellar hair fields, increased the SP working-range, too. We conclude that the working-ranges of both joints are under proprioceptive control of dorsal antennal hair fields. Thus, both synaptic drive to central neural networks and proprioceptive feedback are involved in the control of active tactile exploration behaviour in stick insects.

Active tactile exploration for adaptive locomotion in the stick insect

Insects carry a pair of actively movable feelers that supply the animal with a range of multimodal information. The antennae of the stick insect Carausius morosus are straight and of nearly the same length as the legs, making them ideal probes for near-range exploration. Indeed, stick insects, like many other insects, use antennal contact information for the adaptive control of locomotion, for example, in climbing. Moreover, the active exploratory movement pattern of the antennae is context-dependent. The first objective of the present study is to reveal the significance of antennal contact information for the efficient initiation of climbing. This is done by means of kinematic analysis of freely walking animals as they undergo a tactually elicited transition from walking to climbing. The main findings are that fast, tactually elicited re-targeting movements may occur during an ongoing swing movement, and that the height of the last antennal contact prior to leg contact largely predicts the height of the first leg contact. The second objective is to understand the context-dependent adaptation of the antennal movement pattern in response to tactile contact. We show that the cycle frequency of both antennal joints increases after obstacle contact. Furthermore, inter-joint coupling switches distinctly upon tactile contact, revealing a simple mechanism for context-dependent adaptation.

Neuronal organization of a fast-mediating cephalothoracic pathway for antennal-tactile information in the cricket (Gryllus bimaculatus DeGeer)

Crickets use their long antennae as tactile sensors. Confronted with obstacles, conspecifics, or predators, antennal contacts trigger short-latency motor responses. To reveal the neuronal pathway underlying these antennal-guided locomotory reactions we identified descending interneurons that rapidly transmit antennal-tactile information from the head to the thorax in the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus. Antennae were stimulated with forces approximating those of naturally occurring antennal contacts. Responding interneurons were individually identified by intracellular axon recordings in the pro-mesothoracic connective and subsequent tracer injection. Simultaneous with the intracellular recordings, the overall spike response in the neck connectives was recorded extracellularly to reveal the precise response-timing of each individual neuron within the collective multiunit response. Here we describe four descending brain neurons and two with the soma in the subesophageal ganglion. All antennal-touch elicited action potentials apparent in the neck connective recordings within 10 ms after antennal-contact are generated by these six interneurons. Their dendrites ramify in primary antennal-mechanosensory neuropils of the head ganglia. Each of them consistently generated action potentials in response to antennal touching and three of them responded also to different visual stimulation (light-off, movement). Their descending axons conduct action potentials with 3-5 m/s to the thoracic ganglia where they send off side branches in dorsal neuropils. Their physiological and anatomical properties qualify them as descending giant fibers in the cricket and suggest an involvement in evoking fast locomotory reactions. They form a fast-mediating cephalo-thoracic pathway for antennal-tactile information, whereas all other antennal-tactile interneurons had response latencies exceeding 40 ms.

Biomechanics of the stick insect antenna: damping properties and structural correlates of the cuticle

The antenna of the Indian stick insect Carausius morosus is a highly specialized near-range sensory probe used to actively sample tactile cues about location, distance or shape of external objects in real time. The length of the antenna's flagellum is 100 times the diameter at the base, making it a very delicate and slender structure. Like the rest of the insect body, it is covered by a protective exoskeletal cuticle, making it stiff enough to allow controlled, active, exploratory movements and hard enough to resist damage and wear. At the same time, it is highly flexible in response to contact forces, and returns rapidly to its straight posture without oscillations upon release of contact force. Which mechanical adaptations allow stick insects to unfold the remarkable combination of maintaining a sufficiently invariant shape between contacts and being sufficiently compliant during contact? What role does the cuticle play? Our results show that, based on morphological differences, the flagellum can be divided into three zones, consisting of a tapered cone of stiff exocuticle lined by an inner wedge of compliant endocuticle. This inner wedge is thick at the antenna's base and thin at its distal half. The decay time constant after deflection, a measure that indicates strength of damping, is much longer at the base (τ>25 ms) than in the distal half (τ<18 ms) of the flagellum. Upon experimental desiccation, reducing mass and compliance of the endocuticle, the flagellum becomes under-damped. Analysing the frequency components indicates that the flagellum can be abstracted with the model of a double pendulum with springs and dampers in both joints. We conclude that in the stick-insect antenna the cuticle properties described are structural correlates of damping, allowing for a straight posture in the instant of a new contact event, combined with a maximum of flexibility.

Hysteresis of soft joints embedded with fluid-filled microchannels

Many arthropods are known to achieve dynamic stability during rapid locomotion on rough terrains despite the absence of an elaborate nervous system. While muscle viscoelasticity and its inherent friction have been thought to cause this passive absorption of energy, the role of embedded microstructures in muscles and muscle joints has not yet been investigated. Inspired by the soft and flexible hinge joints present in many of these animals, we have carried out displacement-controlled bending of thin elastic slabs embedded with fluid-filled microchannels. During loading, the slab bends uniformly to a critical curvature, beyond which the skin covering the channel buckles with a catastrophic decrease in load. In the reverse cycle, the buckled skin straightens out but at a significantly lower load. In such a loading-unloading cycle, this localized buckling phenomenon results in a dynamic change in the geometry of the joint, which leads to a significant hysteresis in elastic energy. The hysteresis varies nonlinearly with channel diameters and thicknesses of the slab, which is captured by a simple scaling analysis of the phenomenon.

Gimbals in the insect leg

We studied the common kinematic features of the coxa and trochanter in cursorial and raptorial legs, which are the short size of the podomers, predominantly monoaxial joints, and the approximate orthogonality of adjacent joint axes. The chain coxa-trochanter with its short elements and serial orthogonality of joint axes resembles the gimbals which combine versatility and tolerance to external perturbations. The geometry of legs was studied in 23 insect species of 12 orders. Insects with monoaxial joints were selected. The joint between the trochanter and the femur (TFJ) is defined either by two vestigial condyles or by a straight anterior hinge. Direction of the joint axes in the two basal podomers was assessed by 3D measurements or by goniometry in two planes. Length of the coxa is <15% (mostly <8%) of the total length of the cursorial leg, that of the trochanter <10%. Angles between the proximal and distal joint axes in the middle coxa range from 124 to 84 degrees (mean 97+/-14 degrees ), in the trochanter (in all legs studied) from 125 to 72 degrees (mean 90+/-13 degrees ). Vectors of the distal axis in the coxa are concentrated about the normal to the plane defined by the proximal axis and the midpoint between the distal condyles. These vectors in the trochanter lie at various angles to the normal; angles are correlated with the direction of the TFJ relative to the femur. Range of reduction about the TFJ is over 60 degrees in the foreleg of Ranatra linearis, Mantispa lobata and the hind leg in Carabus coriaceus (confirming observations of previous authors), 40-60 degrees in the foreleg of Vespa crabro and in the middle one in Ammophila campestris, 10-30 degrees in other studied specimens. The special role of the trochanter in autotomy and in active propulsion in some insect groups is discussed. The majority of insects possess small trochanters and slightly movable TFJs with the joint axis laying in the femur-tibia plane. We pose the hypothesis that the TFJ damps external forces, the vectors of which lie off the femur-tibia plane, the reductor muscle acting as a spring. Thus the TFJ contributes to dynamic stability of legged locomotion.

Octopamine-mediated neuromodulation of insect senses

Octopamine functions as a neuromodulator, neurotransmitter, and neurohormone in insect nervous systems. Octopamine has a prominent role in influencing multiple physiological events: (a) as a neuromodulator, it regulates desensitization of sensory inputs, arousal, initiation, and maintenance of various rhythmic behaviors and complex behaviors such as learning and memory; (b) as a neurotransmitter, it regulates endocrine gland activity; and (c) as a neurohormone, it induces mobilization of lipids and carbohydrates. Octopamine exerts its effects by binding to specific proteins that belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors and share the structural motif of seven transmembrane domains. The activation of octopamine receptors is coupled with different second messenger pathways depending on species, tissue source, receptor type and cell line used for the expression of cloned receptor. The second messengers include adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP), calcium, diacylglycerol (DAG), and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). The cAMP activates protein kinase A, calcium and DAG activate protein kinase C, and IP3 mobilizes calcium from intracellular stores. Octopamine-mediated generation of these second messengers is associated with changes in cellular response affecting insect behaviors. The main objective of this review is to discuss significance of octopamine-mediated neuromodulation in insect sensory systems.

Slanted joint axes of the stick insect antenna: an adaptation to tactile acuity

Like many flightless, obligatory walking insects, the stick insect Carausius morosus makes intensive use of active antennal movements for tactile near range exploration and orientation. The antennal joints of C. morosus have a peculiar oblique and non-orthogonal joint axis arrangement. Moreover, this arrangement is known to differ from that in crickets (Ensifera), locusts (Caelifera) and cockroaches (Blattodea), all of which have an orthogonal joint axis arrangement. Our hypothesis was that the situation found in C. morosus represents an important evolutionary trait of the order of stick and leaf insects (Phasmatodea). If this was true, it should be common to other species of the Phasmatodea. The objective of this comparative study was to resolve this question. We have measured the joint axis orientation of the head-scape and scape-pedicel joints along with other parameters that affect the tactile efficiency of the antenna. The obtained result was a complete kinematic description of the antenna. This was used to determine the size and location of kinematic out-of-reach zones, which are indicators of tactile acuity. We show that the oblique and non-orthogonal arrangement is common to eight species from six sub-families indicating that it is a synapomorphic character of the Euphasmatodea. This character can improve tactile acuity compared to the situation in crickets, locusts and cockroaches. Finally, because molecular data of a recent study indicate that the Phasmatodea may have evolved as flightless, obligatory walkers, we argue that the antennal joint axis arrangement of the Euphasmatodea reflects an evolutionary adaptation to tactile near range exploration during terrestrial locomotion.

Active tactile sensing for localization of objects by the cockroach antenna

Antennal movement during tactile orientation behavior was examined three-dimensionally in American cockroaches during tethered walking. When a wooden rod was presented to the tip of one antenna in an upright orientation at one of the three different horizontal positions (30 degrees , 60 degrees , or 90 degrees from the center of the head), the animal touched it repeatedly with the antenna, and tried to approach it (positive thigmotaxis). Positional shifts were also observed for the contralateral unstimulated antenna. The ipsilateral antenna tended to touch the object during inward movement (adduction) at all three test angles. The cumulative turn angle made during a continuous test period of 24 s clearly depended on the object's position; however, the contact frequencies were almost the same regardless of the position. The relationships between contact frequency and some locomotion parameters were also investigated on a shorter time scale of 3 s. The contact frequency positively correlated with the turn angle, with the accuracy of orientation at all three test angles, and with the translation velocity at test angles of 30 degrees and 60 degrees . It is concluded that the performance during tactile orientation can be represented effectively by the frequency with which the antennae touch the attractive objects.

Sensory acquisition in active sensing systems

A defining feature of active sensing is the use of self-generated energy to probe the environment. Familiar biological examples include echolocation in bats and dolphins and active electrolocation in weakly electric fish. Organisms that utilize active sensing systems can potentially exert control over the characteristics of the probe energy, such as its intensity, direction, timing, and spectral characteristics. This is in contrast to passive sensing systems, which rely on extrinsic energy sources that are not directly controllable by the organism. The ability to control the probe energy adds a new dimension to the task of acquiring relevant information about the environment. Physical and ecological constraints confronted by active sensing systems include issues of signal propagation, attenuation, speed, energetics, and conspicuousness. These constraints influence the type of energy that organisms use to probe the environment, the amount of energy devoted to the process, and the way in which the nervous system integrates sensory and motor functions for optimizing sensory acquisition performance.